CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203)

COMPILED BY
MR. NNAMANI O.J

The general scope of cadastral surveying involves the measurement, mapping, and
documentation of land boundaries to establish ownership and legal property descriptions. It
plays a vital role in land management, real estate, urban planning, and resolving land
disputes. Below are the main aspects of cadastral surveying:

1. Boundary Determination
Identification and demarcation of property lines and boundaries.
Surveying based on legal documents like deeds, titles, and existing survey plans.
2. Land Parcel Mapping
Creation of maps and plans showing the extent and division of land parcels.
Integration of cadastral data into Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for land
administration.
3. Property Description
Preparation of precise and legal property descriptions for registration purposes.
Includes details such as dimensions, area, and location of the property.
4. Land Registration Support
Providing data for the registration of land ownership, leases, and other land rights.
Ensuring legal recognition of property ownership.
5. Dispute Resolution
Resolving boundary disputes between property owners through accurate surveys.
Serving as expert witnesses in legal cases related to land ownership.
6. Land Development and Subdivision
Surveying land for subdivision into smaller parcels for sale or development.
Providing necessary surveys for urban planning and zoning.
7. Infrastructure Development
Supporting the design and layout of infrastructure projects such as roads, utilities, and
buildings by providing cadastral data.
8. Compliance with Laws and Regulations
Ensuring surveys conform to national and regional land laws and standards.
Working closely with land registries and other governmental agencies.
9. Land Valuation and Taxation
Assisting in determining land values for taxation or real estate transactions.
Providing accurate land area measurements for tax assessment.
10. Integration with Emerging Technologies
Use of drones, GPS, and GIS for faster and more precise cadastral surveys.
Application of blockchain for secure land registration and transaction records.
Cadastral surveying is essential for land governance, ensuring clarity in property ownership,
and fostering sustainable land management.

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 CADASTRAL SURVEYING
Cadastral surveying is the term generally used to describe the gathering and recording of data
about land parcels.
Cadastral surveying is the process of defining, marking, and documenting land boundaries for
legal, administrative, and ownership purposes.
cadastral surveying on the other hand is the necessary field observations, office computations
and mapping required to maintain the cadastre.
Cadastral surveying could include the work necessary to build cadastre although the problems
are different from maintaining a cadastre, (Dashe, 1987).
Cadastral surveying is the definition, identification, demarcation, measuring and mapping of
new or changed legal parcel boundaries. It usually includes the process of re-establishing lost
boundaries and sometimes resolving disputes over boundaries or other interests in real
property.
❑ When properties are initially registered, government officials have traditionally undertaken
the processes of cadastral surveying and land title adjudication.

❑ Cadastres and cadastral surveys are aspects of land administration.

• The primary object of a cadastral survey is to determine for each land parcel, its
location, the extent of its boundaries and surface area, and to indicate its separate
identity, both graphically on a map or in a record as well as physically on the ground.

• Its secondary objective is to provide information for a multipurpose cadastre to fulfil

the overall information requirements of land administration.
• Cadastral plans can fulfil many of the functions of large-scale topographic maps, not only
serving such purposes as boundary control, registration of title and valuation but also forming
a basis of planning and development
The basic features that are recorded in a cadastre are the land parcels and their boundaries.

THE DEFINITION OF CADASTRE

❑ The Cadastre is a land information system, usually managed by one or more government
agencies. Traditionally the Cadastre was designed to assist in land taxation, real estate
conveyancing, and land redistribution.
The cadastre is a daily maintained record system which contains an unambiguous
description of the physical location and extent of a parcel of land, the related rights to
the land and other information (Dashe, 1987)
Cadastral or parcel-based information system is a general systematic and up-to-date register
containing information about land parcel including details of the area, values, use and
ownership (Dale, 1991).
❑ A cadastre is normally a parcel-based, and an up-to-date land information system
containing a record of interests in land (e.g. rights, restrictions, and responsibilities). ❑ It
usually includes a geometric description of land parcels linked to other records describing the
nature of interests the ownership or control of those interests, and often the values of the
parcel and its improvements.

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 The International Federation of Surveyors Statement on the Cadastre highlights the
importance of the cadastre as a land information system for social and economic development
from an international perspective and recognises the central role that surveyors play in the
establishment and maintenance of cadastre.

❑ Effective land management requires land information, for example information about land
resource capacity, land tenure and land use. The cadastre is the primary means of providing
information about land.

The cadastre provides:

• Information identifying those people who have interest in parcels of land;
• Information about those interest, for example nature and duration of right, restriction of
interest and responsibility;
• Information about the parcels, for example location, size, improvements and value.

A modern cadastre normally consists of a series of large-scale maps or plans, and

corresponding registers.

While the survey of an individual parcel of land has in some countries resulted in a “cadastral
map” for that plot of land and may have been unconnected to any adjoining land parcels, the
true cadastral map covers all parcels within an area rather than isolated plots. It can act as an
index for other land parcel surveys that show more detailed information or can be of
sufficiently large scale for the dimensions of each plot to be obtainable from the map.

A cadastral map will show the boundaries of such parcels but may in addition incorporate
details of the resources associated with them, including the physical structures on or beneath
them, their geology, soils, and vegetation and the manner in which the land is used.

The scale of cadastral maps is of great importance. Since the object of the map is to provide a
precise description and identification of the land, the scale must be large enough for every
separate plot of land which may be the subject of separate possession (conveniently called a
“survey plot” or “land parcel”) to appear as a recognizable unit on the map.
When map data are stored in a computer, they may be drawn at almost any scale and this can
give an impression of greater accuracy than the quality of the survey data may warrant.
Since the map and the corresponding registers form complementary parts of the same system
of description and identification, there must be some system of cross-referencing between
what is shown on the map and what is recorded in the registers. This usually means that either
names or numbers must be given to each separate land parcel. These references are known as
Property Identifiers (PID) Or Unique Parcel Reference Numbers (UPRN).
Various reference systems have been developed including:
a. The name of the grantor or grantee
b. A sequential title number

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 c. The volume and folio numbers on which the plot is registered
d. The name of a farm or locality with an individual plot number
e. The registration block and individual plot numbers
f. A post office address
g. A street index reference and parcel number
h. A grid coordinate or “geocode”

The reference chosen should be easy to understand and easy to remember; easy to use for the
public and by computers; permanent so that it does not change with the sale of a property, but
capable of being updated when there is for example a subdivision of the land; unique;
accurate; and economic to introduce.

It is essential that when these numbers or names are drawn on a map that they do not obscure
the details of the map itself. The cadastral map should show the boundaries of each land
parcel and in some jurisdictions may also show its area and the actual length and bearing of
each boundary line. These considerations may obviously demand a scale somewhat larger
than that required merely to indicate each surveyed plot.

The smallest satisfactory scale depends primarily on the area of the smallest survey plot
likely to be met with, and may thus vary greatly in different circumstances. A much larger
scale will be necessary for cadastral maps of towns than for those of rural areas. Similarly a
closely occupied countryside consisting of small fields and holdings will require maps on a
larger scale than is necessary in areas where there are large farms with open fields.

The maps with which most people are familiar are topographic maps at scales of around
1:50,000. Such maps make it possible to show accurately (though not always to scale) the
position of roads, railways, footpaths, villages, rivers, streams, bridges, important buildings,
administrative boundaries and other similar features as well as the relief of the land, the depth
of water and variations in tide level. These maps are however quite inadequate for cadastral
purposes. A simple example will make this point clear. A carefully drawn pencil line will
have a width of perhaps half a millimetre. On a map on the scale of 1:50,000 this would
represent a line of 25 metres wide of the ground.

There are many countries, especially hilly countries, with separate fields less than 25 metres
wide. Most cadastral maps need to be at scales of between 1:500 and 1:2,500 although in
densely developed areas a larger scale may be needed while in open countryside much
smaller scales may be acceptable. Large-scale plans are initially much more expensive to
make per unit area than small-scale maps, but it must always be remembered that, once the
large- scale survey has been completed, accurate maps on any smaller scale can be derived
from them. The converse is not however true for although larger-scale maps can easily be
constructed by using computers, they can never be more accurate than the original data from
which they were first compiled. Usually cadastral maps need only be “planimetric” maps,
that is to say, they need not show topographical relief. There may be special reasons why
altitudes should be recorded on cadastral maps, but ordinarily all that is needed is a plan of

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 what is seen, without stereoscopy, from a point vertically above the piece of land observed.
Distances recorded on such plans are the horizontal distances between points and not the
surface distances actually measured on the ground. Thus the area recorded for a plot of land
on a steep hillside will be the horizontal equivalent which may be significantly less than the
actual surface area.

A third important requirement of cadastral maps is that they should show a sufficient
number of points which can be accurately identified on the ground to enable any other
point on the ground to be identified on the map (or vice versa) by eye or by simple and
short measurements. Professionally this requirement is satisfied by marks recording the
original triangulation stations, or the stations on supplementary theodolite traverses, but this
is usually inadequate or inconvenient for practical purposes. In areas where there are
permanent fences or fields surrounded by embankments, the fences and banks may provide
an adequate means of detailed identification, but in unfenced open fields without any
embankments, some means of indicating the land parcel boundaries on the ground will be
necessary.

A good mark must be durable in itself and not easy to remove either accidentally or wilfully.
In many countries it is also desirable that the material of which it is made should not be of a
kind that encourages theft. Since the marks must be easily recognizable they must be fairly
conspicuous on the surface but for important points, such as those used as control for surveys,
there are advantages in supplementing surface marks with marks that are set in concrete and
buried beneath them.

One principal method of identification used in cadastral maps is the “grid”. In some
countries, such as much of the public lands in the United States, a grid has been laid out on
the ground creating a “rectangular system”. All parcels of land are formed by straight lines,
often running north to south and east to west. The problem with such a system is that it is
unsympathetic to the natural topography but its advantage is its simplicity and the relative
clarity of the boundaries on the ground. More commonly however a grid is used as a
referencing system so that the coordinates of all boundary turning points can be measured,
calculated and recorded. The data can then be stored in a computer and used either to draw
the cadastral maps or else for helping a surveyor to re-establish lost boundary marks.

The land parcel reference number can be used to identify the plot. It can be cross-referenced
both to the files that contain more detailed survey information about the parcel such as its
dimensions, and to the data on ownership, value and use. In many countries the records of
survey are held in one government department (the Survey Department) while text data and
details of title are held in another. The latter may, for example, be the Lands Department, the
Ministry of Justice or even the Government Treasury. It is important that wherever records of
land parcels are maintained, every authority adopts the same standard land parcel referencing
system.

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 It is also essential that changes in land parcel boundaries be recorded as soon as they are
agreed. All interested parties must be notified immediately of any changes that have taken
place affecting land parcels, for example where there has been formal subdivision. A cadastral
map must be up to date at all times.

Registers of rights

Cadastral maps are essentially descriptions of the parcels of land (survey plots or holdings)
with reference to which rights in land are defined and the holders of these rights identified.
Cadastral maps are not in themselves a record of any right held, although it is true that they
may be used to differentiate certain types of tenure, for example state and non-state land,
reserved forests, and land held by public authorities or under certain tenures (for example
religious or charitable foundations). In such cases, the maps may become a part of the record
of rights. The formal record of rights is normally contained in one or more “registers”
that in some countries are known as the “Land book”. These registers will normally be
supported by cadastral maps. The converse is however not true and cadastral maps can exist
without registers of rights, for example where they are the original record of a classification
of land for taxation purposes.

Registers of rights must be distinguished from registers of deeds. A deed is a written

instrument recording a transaction affecting, or purporting to affect, a right. Deeds may be
registered for the public convenience or in the interests of private persons. A deed is only
executed when there is some change in the possession of a right and a register of deeds is
a record of transactions in rights and not of the rights themselves.

Rights in land are of many kinds, varying from full ownership to a mere conditional right of
access at certain times and for certain purposes. Rights in water also exist and may be held
separately or on a different basis from the rights in the land on or under which the water is
found. There may also be separate rights in trees and minerals, etc. A complete register of
rights should take account of all these rights but in practice few such complete registers exist,
and most people when they speak of registration of rights in land are thinking only of the
registration of title, that is of rights of ownership (or perhaps more broadly those of primary
tenure).

This limitation probably arises from the fact that written registers of rights usually (though
not invariably) come into being in countries in relatively advanced stages of social
development. Such countries in general have registers based on European ideas of property in
land that give protection to the landholder and are less concerned with the point of view of
the public interest. In such countries land registration has tended to be seen primarily as in
instrument for improving the processes of conveyancing rather than an instrument of land
resource management.

An important result of this preoccupation of systems of registration with individual primary

tenures has been the growth of a belief that registration is impracticable or unnecessary, and

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 even undesirable, where private ownership is not an important feature of the tenure system. It
is true that in many traditional societies what may be called the public memory, often assisted
by a high degree of publicity, ceremony and even ritual, is in itself a form of record which
may take the place of a written record. It may also be true that local financial or social
conditions may justify a postponement of the work of survey and registration. Experience,
however, suggests that the time will inevitably come when growing pressure of population on
the land and other causes will create a pressing need to define accurately the boundaries of
family, village or tribal holdings and the rights enjoyed in these lands by members of the
community concerned.

Once the conception of a land register as a record of individual rights in particular pieces of
land is laid aside, many of the local objections to registration disappear. It is obvious that the
members of a community that holds its land on a communal basis, or on the basis of what is
known as the extended family, may reasonably object to any attempt to define the rights of
individuals in terms of the land they actually occupy - especially when, as sometimes
happens, the true ownership is believed still to vest in some long-dead ancestor. This is not,
however, an essential feature of a system of registration of rights. In such cases the register
might consist merely of a precise description of the lands held in common, a statement of the
kinds of right enjoyed by the members of the group, and a list of members of the group
regarded as possessing such rights. There need be either no reference to current occupancy, or
such reference as would make it abundantly clear that occupancy carried no rights of
mortgage or disposal. Such a register would initially be merely a written reflection of the
public memory and its maintenance merely a record of changes duly authorised by traditional
ceremonies and rituals. Its advantage as a method of avoiding disputes and unwarranted
claims by individuals together with its obvious utility in cases where the traditional system
finds itself unable to cope with the current situation would most likely far outweigh the
objections that could be urged against it. It should also be noted that many rights in land and
water or in the produce of land and water, other than rights of individual possession of land,
are in fact registered in forms other than the formal land registers. Under the better systems of
forest administration, for example, it is common practice for the orders constituting new
forest reserves to be set out in considerable detail (sometimes extending to actual lists of
names).
Such orders would define the nature and extent of rights of residence, cultivation, grazing,
timber extraction and collection of wild produce by individuals or villages that subsist in the
forest after reservation. Leases to work inland fisheries often contain clauses describing the
rights of neighbouring cultivators in respect of use and control of the water, and place
limitations, based on these rights, on the extent to which the lessee may obstruct or divert the
flow of water.
All these things are in effect methods of registering rights in land otherwise than in the
ordinary land register. That departmentally it may be convenient to keep separate records of
some of them does not detract from the fact that they are essentially part of the national
record of rights in land and should be so regarded. Some classes of rights in land cannot be
disregarded such as rights of secondary occupation or use of land. Some of these, for example
hereditary and life tenancies, occupancy rights, etc. derogate so importantly from the rights of

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 the primary possessor that they must necessarily find a place in every register of rights.
Others, for instance seasonal tenancies that are not renewed, are so ephemeral that the trouble
of keeping the register up-to-date may not be justified by the advantages of having these
rights registered.

Another important class of rights in land consists of liens and conditional reversions,
including mortgages and pledges in security. The large class of usufructuary mortgages,
which involve changes in physical possession, would probably be registered under any
ordinary system of land registration. Simple mortgages not involving changes in physical
possession are normally registered as documents where a system of registration of documents
is in force, but may not find a place in land registers. Many pledges of land as collateral
security may not be registered at all. There are, however, good reasons why all encumbrances
to land should be publicly registered. There is also a great variety of rights that do not involve
possession, legal, physical or conditional, of the land itself. One of the most interesting of
these arises from the fact that in some countries property in trees may be held and may pass
quite separately from and independently of property in the land itself. Separate rights in
minerals are a similar case. There are also many easements or servitudes, especially rights of
grazing, of passage, of extraction of timber and forest produce, and of “profits à prendre”
generally. These may be of great importance especially where public land is affected, or
where a large estate is to be broken up. In such cases a public record of these may be of great
value. There is also a large class of public rights in land, including not only rights held by the
state, but also rights held by large numbers of government departments and local authorities,
village commons, and in some countries the sites of the villages themselves.

Enough has perhaps now been said to indicate the inadequacy of a register of title alone as a
record of rights in land. The extent to which a national register should cover the whole field,
however, is a matter for decision in each case. Before discussing the objects at which a good
system of registration of rights should aim, there is one matter of fundamental importance to
which reference must be made, since it arises from the main difficulty in effective
registration. This is the difficulty of ascertaining in absolute terms the precise nature of the
rights held by any particular person, or conversely, of ascertaining the person who holds any
particular right. This subject is usually discussed in terms of title to the ownership or
possession of land, and will so be discussed here. It should, however, be noted that what is
said about title applies in general to all other rights.

First, it is desirable to return for a moment to the distinction between registration of deeds
and registration of rights. A deed is a record of an isolated transaction and is evidence
that that particular transaction took place. It is not, however, in itself evidence of the legal
right of either party to carry out the transaction and consequently not evidence of the legality
of the transaction itself. The defects of a register of deeds as a record of rights are therefore
obvious; as Sir Robert Torrens, the great Australian authority on registration of title put it:
“Title by deed can never be demonstrated as an ascertained fact: it can only be presented as
an inference more or less deducible from the documentary evidence accessible at the time
being.”

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 A register of title clearly aims at something much more definite than this. Every parcel
of land is originally placed in the register as a unit of property. Once this has been done,
every transaction affecting the parcel is entered in the register with reference to the land
itself and registration thus serves as evidence of title and as a bar to contrary claims.
The difficulty lies in the nature of the evidence on which the original entry is based. Where
registration is in force from the first occupation of land, no difficulty arises since clearly there
is no question of any adverse claim having previously arisen. This is, however, seldom the
case, and the question at once arises of the evidence required before a first entry is made in
the register. The investigation of absolute title may be, and usually will be, a long, difficult
and expensive process in each case, and at the worst may never produce a definitive result.
On the other hand a system of registration based on possession, which is an obvious
alternative, can provide presumptive evidence of title, though from a legalistic point of view
such a register is little better than a register of deeds. Every year that passes, however, makes
presumptive evidence more difficult to rebut and finality can always be achieved by
legislation that lays down a limit to the time within which suits claiming an interest in land
may be brought. It is, of course, claimed that by the custom of many countries, especially in
Africa, mere lapse of time does not extinguish a right once acquired. It is fortunate that it is in
precisely these countries that the public memory referred to above will be found to be most
active and accurate. Hence there are strong grounds for thinking that, provided that the
inquiry on which initial registration is based is local and public and that care is taken that the
purpose of the inquiry is understood by the people concerned, the claims of absentees will not
go by default, even in the first instance. It is not, of course, suggested that, even where
registration is to be based on possessory rather than on absolute title, nothing more is
necessary than a mere writing down of the names of persons in actual physical occupancy of
the land. Many of these persons will, by their own admission or from the knowledge of their
neighbours, be persons in subordinate or joint occupancy only, and what should be recorded
is obviously the name of the person in primary possession or all the names of joint
possessors. A careful inquiry will therefore be necessary to elicit the full facts of current
possession and there will probably be other subjects for inquiry at the same time. It should be
observed that the fact that quite a detailed inquiry is necessary merely to establish the full
facts of current possession considerably reduces the likelihood of subsequent claims adverse
to the facts thus established. Public opposition to the initiation of a system of land registration
may sometimes be strong and there is, perhaps, a larger number of cases in which expected
opposition acts as a deterrent to action. It is an interesting fact that such opposition seldom
comes from the landholders themselves, and this sometimes raises doubts as to the complete
disinterestedness of the opposition: it is, for example, perhaps not very reasonable to expect
enthusiasm for a registration system from a lawyer accustomed to high fees for
conveyancing. There are, however, cases in which opposition is or seems to be justified, and
in such cases great care should be exercised in adjusting the system so as to remove or
mitigate public doubts and fears.
The purposes of a complete system of registration of rights in land are:

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JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 1. to provide at any time by a mere examination of the maps and registers an up-to-date
and true description of all rights recognized by law or valid custom in the land at that
time and a statement of the persons, classes of persons, public authorities, etc. in
whom these rights vest for the time being;
2. to provide an immediate means of identifying with certainty and accuracy both entries
in the maps and registers relating to any actual piece of land and the actual piece of
land to which any particular entries in maps and registers relate.

The achievement of these purposes may be expected to have certain effects on all relations
between the land and the individuals, social groups, and public authorities interested in that
land.
To achieve these purposes the following documents are required.
1. A cadastral map on which, with the assistance of permanent marks or features on the
ground, every piece of land which has been or may be the subject of any right can be
accurately identified either directly by examination or by short and simple measurement.
2. A register which acts as an index to the map, containing the area of each survey plot and
which provides in tabulated form all information about the survey plot that is contained in the
map.
3. A register or series of connected registers containing so much of the following information
as it is intended to register:
a. The number, name, etc. of the corresponding map.
b. The basic tenure of each survey plot where different basic tenures are recognized: for
example, state or non-state land; communal and private land; village and family land, etc.
c. The “primary holdings” by serial numbers and names (if any).
d. The basic tenure of each primary holding, where different basic tenures are recognized: for
instance state or non-state lands, communal or private land; village or family land, etc.
e. The numbers or other identification of the land parcels included in each primary holding.
f. The area of each land parcel and the total area of the primary holding.
g. The name, description or other identification of the primary holder.
h. If the primary holder is a group of persons (other than a formal association such as a
company or cooperative society), the names and other identification of each member of the
group who is recognized as a joint holder and the nature of the right held. This includes
groups such as joint owners, an extended family, the inhabitants of a village, a tribe, etc. The
name, title etc. of the person or body recognized as representing the joint-holders for business
purposes should also be included.
i. The tenure under which the land is held if this differs from the basic tenure, such as leases
of state land.
j. Any permanent rights over the land not amounting to occupation held by persons other than
the primary holder or joint holders, such as easements, rights of grazing, cutting or collecting
of forest produce, etc.
k. Any rights reserved against the primary holder by the government. l. Any primary rights,
for example in trees, etc., over things on the land that do not vest in the primary landholder.
m. Permanent subordinate rights of occupation or use.

NOTES ON CADASTRAL SURVEYING I (SVG 203) COMPILED BY MR. NNAMANI O.

JOHN
© 2025
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 n. Temporary subordinate rights which have the effect of suppressing or placing in suspension
the rights of the primary holder, such as usufructuary mortgages.
o. Temporary subordinate rights of occupation or user modifying but not suppressing or
suspending the rights of the primary holder, such as ordinary tenancies.
p. Encumbrances on the land not affecting rights of occupation and user, such as simple
mortgages.
Set out at length, these requirements seem very complicated. In practice, however, if separate
forms are used for such obviously different types of primary right as individual and
communal tenure, and if intelligent use is made of supplementary registers (especially where
changes are likely to be frequent as in the case of short-term tenancies) the forms necessary
will prove to be quite simple.

Principles to be followed in the preparation and maintenance of records of rights.

The actual details of the process of registration of rights will vary so greatly in accordance
with local circumstances that no useful purpose would be served by trying to outline a
suitable procedure in general terms.
There are, however, a number of principles of general application which will be found greatly
to assist the execution of any procedure that may be adopted.

The first is to recognize the need for adequate maps. No system of registration of rights
will be successful without the support of an adequate series of cadastral maps. Even the
simplest system of voluntary registration will be greatly strengthened and facilitated through
the standard and accurate means of description that these maps alone can supply.

The second is to recognize that ultimately every system of registration should become
compulsory. Only by compulsion can the universality on which the full advantage of
registration depends be obtained. If a system of voluntary registration is introduced at the first
instance, it should be regarded as part of the necessary educational process designed to
prepare public opinion for compulsory registration.

The third essential is that a system of registration will only be fully successful if it is
supported by Public Opinion, and public opinion must thus be educated to accept the
system.
Education may consist largely in the dispelling of doubts and fears, but much may be done by
intelligent propaganda by the government to indicate the advantages of registration to the
individual and to the local community. The institution of a voluntary system may be a
valuable part of such promotion. The previous existence of a system of registration of
documents, including deeds, may also be very helpful. The form of promotion will, however,
necessarily be determined by the nature and reality of the doubts and fears mentioned above.
Methods of increasing confidence in registration include the association of interested
members of the public with all stages of the initial registration, and the holding of enquiries

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 and examination of claims on the land or in nearby villages rather than in distant towns.
There must also be procedures for appeals against the decision of registering officers at all
stages of the enquiry and not merely when registration is complete. In most countries where
there are small holdings it will be found that local enquiries and local facilities for making
and examining claims will be absolutely essential to success. The ultimate aim of registration
should be to secure a complete and indefeasible record of all rights held. To ascertain
absolute title by a single inquiry may, however, be very difficult and in practice a record
based on presumptive title has been found rapidly to acquire all the essential features of one
based on absolute title. The most suitable procedure may thus be to aim at the best results that
can be secured by a careful local inquiry into present facts of possession. Such an inquiry
should be preceded by widespread notification of the intention to hold it and should include a
careful examination of all evidence produced in close consultation with local opinion.

The less “developed” a country is, the more immediately effective this inquiry will be. In
most “underdeveloped” countries all the facts about individual and communal rights in land
are usually well known and understood by the local people. It is merely a matter of eliciting
these facts, a process which however may demand much patience and will certainly demand
much local knowledge and experience. When a register has been working for a few years its
essential accuracy or lack of accuracy will soon become apparent. A term can then be placed
on outstanding claims, if desired, by means of a statute of limitations and the record thus
made absolute. Nothing of this kind may, however, be necessary, and probably will not be
necessary once the record becomes established that presumptive evidence of such weight
cannot be rebutted except in most unusual circumstances. A special difficulty in dealing with
communal tenures may be the right of members of the community who have left it to resume
their rights on their return. The existence of this right is a special reason for the most careful
local inquiry among influential members of the society. Mere reliance on claims actually
presented in person may cause serious error. This is, of course, true in other cases also.
Besides the public notification of intention to register mentioned above, personal notices
should be sent, as far as possible, to all persons likely to have a claim on the land.
Where land taxes are assessed, such notices may be attached to tax demand notes or
despatched separately to those who have been assessed on the basis of the revenue records.
Existing registers of deeds and other public records of transactions in land may also be used
to assist in reaching all possible claimants. The sites of registration offices should be chosen
so that registration of mutations will cause the least possible inconvenience to members of the
public. The number and distribution of these offices will depend on the size of holdings and
the social and economic status of rightholders. In a country of large holdings where
transactions in land are few and important, a relatively small number of offices at main
centres of population may suffice. In a country of smallholdings, many small local offices
will be necessary and there are great advantages in periodic tours of the lands themselves by
registering officers. These small local offices and tours will certainly be necessary in any case
where small tenancies fall within the scope of registration. Many countries that have no
system of registration of land have a well-established system of registration of certain classes
of documents including deeds relating to transfers of rights in land. There may be good
reasons for continuing the separate registration of deeds, which normally includes the making

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 verbatim of a copy of the document registered, even after a system of registration of land has
been adopted. This need not and should not mean duplication of work. In fact the double
system may have considerable practical advantages. Most deeds are executed in fairly large
centres of population which may be far distant from the place where the land is situated. A
localized system of land registration may thus cause inconvenience to some persons
concerned in a transaction, as compared with the registration of a deed which need not be
localized. Every such inconvenience hinders the effectiveness of a system of registration. In
many systems, whenever a deed affecting the land registers is registered, a docket giving the
essential information is forwarded as a matter of course by the registrar of deeds to the land
registry concerned. In the absence of computerization, this is a most useful method of
ensuring that the land registers are kept up-to-date.

The same procedure may be applied in respect of decrees and other orders of civil courts,
land courts, etc. The success or failure of a system of registration will depend on the
completeness and promptness with which mutations are reported. (By “mutation” is meant
any changes that affect entries in the registers, such as changes in the land, in the
conditions under which it is held or in the holder of the rights.) During the earlier stages
of registration, there are likely to be many delays and omissions in reporting mutations,
especially those that do not involve a formal transaction, and such delays and omissions will
never entirely cease, at least in underdeveloped countries, if the duty of reporting is left
entirely to the initiative of the persons affected. It must be remembered for instance that in
countries where customs of inheritance prescribe absolutely the succession to landed
property, there is no question of the formalities attached to the proving of a will and that in
such countries land will frequently change hands without formal documents of any kind.
Again many small sales, mortgages, leases, etc. may be made without written records of any
kind. In these circumstances, the habit of prompt reporting may be very difficult to inculcate.
Legal penalties and disabilities, though probably necessary to deal with a few cases of wilful
failure to observe the law, will usually be ineffective and are certainly objectionable
expedients for use in cases of mere public apathy or lack of understanding.
In general, prompt reporting of mutations will probably be best achieved by applying the
following principles:
a. That, as far as possible, mutations should be brought to the notice of the registering officer
automatically or in the course of ordinary routine.
b. That, where reports must depend on the initiative of individuals affected by the mutation, it
should be made as easy as possible to make these reports by siting local registration offices
conveniently for the persons who will use them and by periodic tours of registering officers
within their charges.
c. That entries in registers should be checked periodically by inquiries in the field (for
instance by registering officers during their tours, by cadastral surveyors engaged in checking
and revision of the maps, etc.)

Whatever system of registration is adopted it is important that the procedure should be as

simple as possible. There are two strong reasons for this:

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 first, the system should be easily comprehensible to the landholders themselves; and second,
especially in underdeveloped countries, the operation of the system should not demand a staff
with high educational qualifications.
Registers of Rights are quite different from Registers of Deeds in that they need not
contain copies of long instruments of transfer. They can therefore be reasonably compact
in form, and must be, if they are to be used for field work. The loose-leaf form is usually the
most convenient. As the register is related to a particular map it has usually to be rewritten if
a new survey is carried out. The old registers and maps are then placed in the archives, either
in the record room or computer archive, and continuity between old and new assured by
preliminary cross-references in the new registers. Duplicate registers and backup copies of
computer files provide a safeguard against loss or damage. Copies may often conveniently be
prepared on microfilm and for this purpose the looseleaf system has great advantages. With
computerized systems, regular backing up of the files must be undertaken. The current maps
and registers should be open to public inspection without charge. Inquiries involving the
searching of old records can on the other hand be charged for. Holders of individual rights
may also suitably be entitled to a free copy of those parts of the current map and of those
entries in the current register that relate to their lands.
In other cases, copies should be charged for. Where a system of land taxation exists, the
cadastral survey and record of rights are usually the basis of the tax assessment, and in fact
most of the older cadastres were prepared primarily for fiscal purposes. This use of records is
not essential, but the combination of the two sets of records has obvious administrative
advantages since it provides both government and right holder with an incentive to keep the
record accurate and uptodate, and immediately justifies the expense of maintaining the
records. The use of the records for revenue purposes, however, necessarily introduces
complications into the system, which need not be pursued here beyond saying that the record
may have to become a record of land values, rental values, or crop yields as well as a record
of rights and may also embody a system of classification of land for fiscal purposes.

Advantages of cadastral surveys and registration of rights

i. The first and most obvious advantage of a cadastral survey and record of rights
is that together they give a true and exact description of the legal situation of
rights in land at any moment.
Only a cadastral map can provide the means of accurate identification necessary to
this end and only a continuous and comprehensive record of rights can give an
accurate picture of the position at any particular time. Most of the advantages of the
system of survey and record derive directly from the immediate availability of this
exact information. The person legally recognized as possessing a right, the nature of
the right, and the exact boundaries of the land concerned are at once clear, and any
persons engaged in any transaction relating to the right knows at once how they stand.
If the record is one of absolute title, the person whose name is recorded in the register,
and no other, can dispose of the rights. If the register is one of possession only, there
is at least a very strong presumption that the person registered as in possession is the

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 person who can dispose of the rights and a virtual certainty that his or her interest in
the transaction cannot be neglected. The possibility of fraud or of subsequent legal
difficulties are thus either eliminated or greatly reduced.

ii. Registration also provides adequate protection to all classes of rightholder,

including absentees, persons with reversionary or pre-emptive rights, or those
with dormant rights of any kind.

iii. It also protects any person or class of persons who have rights in easements or other
restrictive rights. A public right of way is protected by registration equally with a right
to restrict building or land use. Communal or private rights of grazing, extraction of
timber, collection of forest produce, use of water, etc. whether on private or public
lands, are publicly defined and safeguarded.

iv. Registration also simplifies control over the acquisition of new rights. In cases where
prescriptive rights accrue after a definite period, registration provides immediate
evidence that the right has been established.

v. It also prevents the acquisition of prescriptive rights where this is contrary to public
policy.

Generally it provides a ready means of regularizing all informal kinds of occupation or types
of user. All dealings in land are greatly facilitated by registration. Boundaries are directly and
accurately known, the nature and extent of existing rights are at once clear, long and costly
inquiries into title are avoided, the need for the services of lawyers or other intermediaries is
reduced to a minimum, and generally all transactions in land can be carried out with
increased cheapness, speed and security. This applies, of course, not only to transactions
involving a permanent transfer of the right, but also to temporary limitations and mortgaging.
If, for example, mortgages are registered, then any persons intending to lend money on the
security of land can quickly ascertain the exact position in regard to previous encumbrances.
They will thus obtain a substantially greater measure of security for their money. Similarly,
borrowers whose rights are registered can borrow money more easily and quickly, and
probably also more cheaply, on the security of their land.
All classes benefit from the elimination of worthless documents purporting to be valid
instruments establishing or conveying rights in land. This kind of document may be a real
danger both to private and public interests at those stages of social and economic
development where traditional systems begin to feel the impact of external influences. In the
same kind of situation (and in many others) the publicity given to transfers of title by a
system of compulsory registration greatly facilitates the protection designed to be given to
economically weak classes of the population by legislation restricting alienation of land by or
to specific classes of persons. One of the great difficulties of enforcing such legislation lies in
devising a sure method of bringing apparent breaches of the law promptly to the notice of the
authorities charged with the duty of enforcing it.

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 Generally the result of compulsory registration of rights in land is likely to be a very
considerable reduction in the volume of litigation about land, with a consequent great saving
of unproductive expenditure which the agricultural landholder can ill afford.

Finally there are the great advantages which the existence of an up-to-date and reliable map
and record of all existing rights in land gives to every branch of the government that deals
with the administration of land.

Some of these advantages obviously follow directly from the existence of an unimpeachable
record, for example the simplification of the work of the courts, increased ease in carrying
out the acquisition of land for public purposes, improved administration of forests and other
public lands, and so on.

Other advantages are more indirect and perhaps less immediately obvious, but none the less
very real. These advantages are those that good cadastral maps and a sound system of
registration of rights bring to the appreciation of a national agrarian situation and to the
elaboration of measures for its improvement and reform.

An unsatisfactory agrarian situation is usually forced on the public attention by the

appearance of acute symptoms of malaise in the rural economy and especially by the
depression of certain classes of the rural population and even by active agrarian unrest. These
symptoms often become manifest only at a relatively late stage in the decay of the existing
agrarian structure, or they may be brought to an acute stage by a sudden economic
disturbance such as a worldwide slump in commodity prices or by the effects of a war which
can place unusual strains on the rural work force which becomes depleted by the demands of
military service. Or again the return of those who have been working in foreign countries and
hence have experience of different conditions and practices may bring into prominence rural
stresses and strains previously concealed. Yet defects in land tenure systems and the agrarian
structure generally do not develop like mushrooms in a night. They have been there latent but
not inactive, for years or even for generations before a crisis flares up. Sometimes they have
been well known and simply disregarded; sometimes they have been seen by a few officials
and students of agrarian affairs and duly reported to the government, which however did
nothing because the action necessary ran counter to established public policy. More often,
however, they have not come clearly to the notice of the authorities because the latter had no
ready means of obtaining exact and up-to-date information on what was happening in relation
to the land and its occupants. There was no close and continuous contact with rural life and
consequently no means of feeling the pulse of the agricultural community.

A good cadastral survey and system of registration of rights provides the material for this
close and continuous contact, both by providing an up-to-date picture of the situation and by
ensuring that the government has a staff which is in constant touch with the situation itself.
This is especially the case where registration offices are established in the villages or small
towns and the register is maintained or checked by field inspections.

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 The cadastral maps themselves and the information contained in the land registers also
provide a good, and indeed the essential, basis for the preparation and execution of a
programme of land reform or for any other measures taken to remove defects in the agrarian
economy. Large-scale maps are, in fact, necessary to the success of any measure of land
reform that involves either the redistribution of existing holdings or the settlement of new
areas. If maps do not exist they will have to be made, and once a policy of reform has been
adopted there may be little time for this. The registers provide the factual basis on which the
reforms must rest. If this basis does not exist, it can scarcely be improvised and the reforms
will, to a large extent, be a leap into the dark which may be full of danger. This matter is of
such importance that one or two examples may suitably be given. Many schemes of land
reform which involve the expropriation of large landholders contain provisions exempting
from expropriation land up to a particular maximum area held by a single landholder or land
of particular types or used in particular ways. This kind of provision is obviously unworkable
unless the boundaries and areas of individual estates, the type of land contained in each estate
and the use to which the land is put are known. This knowledge can only be provided with
the exactitude required by means of a cadastral survey.
Again the distribution of expropriated lands among the new holders will demand a detailed
demarcation of the new holdings which, in the absence of large-scale maps, can only be
undertaken painfully and inefficiently by actual measurements on the ground. Similarly no
tenancy legislation that involves the determination of rents of particular holdings or the grant
of improved security to tenants can be enforced effectively unless the boundaries and areas of
the tenancies are accurately known from good maps. The advantages derived from the
existence of a cadastral survey in the administration of agricultural credit have already been
mentioned. Perhaps the most obvious example of all is that of a plan for the consolidation of
fragmented holdings which will be virtually impossible to carry out unless the precise
boundaries and ownership of the individual plots and fields are known. It is no answer to
these arguments to say that in some countries agrarian reforms have been attempted and even
carried out without good maps or exact information as to existing rights. In these cases the
immediate result of the reforms has usually been a state of uncertainty and confusion which
postponed their effectiveness for years or at the best, a slowing down of the rate of their
progress to a politically dangerous and economically unjustifiable degree. Good work in
agrarian improvement demands exact information of the kind that only a cadastral survey can
give.

Essentials of a Modern Cadastre

 These components ensure accurate and efficient land administration.

A modern cadastre must include:

 Large-scale maps
 Registers containing ownership and land-use details
 Unique parcel identifiers
 Up-to-date and dynamic data

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  Compliance with legal frameworks
 Public access to information
 Coordination with survey systems

Types of Cadastre

 Juridical/Legal Cadastre: Maintains a legally recognized record of land tenure,

documenting property rights and ownership.
 Fiscal Cadastre: Developed for property valuation and taxation purposes, ensuring
accurate assessment of land and property taxes.
 Multipurpose Cadastre: Combines juridical and fiscal cadastres while incorporating
additional land-related data, such as land use, natural resources, and environmental
attributes.

Juridical/Legal Cadastre
Juridical cadastre serves as a legally recognized record of land tenure. Its Supports land rights
and is concerned with documenting rights and relating them to the land with which they are
associated. It is also concerned with all forms of property rights.
The Juridicial Cadastre is a written record or register containing information about each
parcel, such as the spatial information and the rights which appertain to the land. It Contains a
detailed description of the parcel, in the form of either survey maps or measurements

Fiscal Cadastre
Fiscal cadastre, which was developed primarily for property valuation. It is an instrument for
administering land tax and value policy. The information required to develop and maintain a
fiscal cadastre may be collected directly or indirectly through surveys or from other sources,
for instance details of land ownership and their property boundaries.

Multipurpose Cadastre
Multipurpose cadastre encompasses both fiscal and the juridical with the addition of other
parcel-related information.
❑ Should be maps showing the location and different types of physical features.
❑ Concerned with physical attributes such as man-made objects and natural features
associated with each land parcel, abstractions, surveying and mapping data can also be
referenced to the parcel

Multipurpose Cadastre
This parcel-based and information system otherwise referred to as Cadastral Information
System (CIS) has been positively affected by the advancement in computer and space
technology and greatly improved methods of information gathering, storage, dissemination,
Cadastral information system is a sub-set of Geographic Information System (GIS), which is
concerned with the provision of spatially reference data.
❑ Advantages directly beneficial from multipurpose cadastre are:
(i) an improved conveyancing system;

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 (ii) an improved cadastral survey system;
(iii) improved land use planning, land management and environment management;
(iv) improved management of publicly owned lands,
(v) reduction of duplication; and
(vi) better control of land transactions.

Benefits of Multipurpose Cadastre

❑ A modern multipurpose cadastre can lead to improve:
• Conveyancing system.
• Cadastral survey system.
• Land use planning and land management.
• Sustainable development.
• Management of publicly owned lands.
• Reduction of duplication.
• Control of land transactions.

The Nigerian Cadastral Systems

Cadastral Systems are organized in different ways throughout the world, especially with
regard to the Land Registration component.
Basically, two types of systems can be identified: the Deeds System and the Title System.

The differences between the two concepts relate to the cultural development and judicial
setting of the country. The key difference is found in whether only the transaction is recorded
(the Deeds System) or the title itself is recorded and secured (the Title System).
The Deeds System is basically a register of owners focusing on “who owns what” while the
Title System is a register of properties presenting “what is owned by whom”. The cultural
and judicial aspects relate to whether a country is based on Roman law (Deeds Systems) or
Germanic or common-Anglo law (Title Systems). This of course relates to the history of
colonization.
“Rights such as freehold and registered leasehold, and the conventional cadastral and land
registration systems, and the way they are presently structured, cannot supply security of
tenure to the vast majority of the low income groups and/or deal quickly enough with the
scale of urban problems

In most countries, transfer of ownership of land is only possible upon registration of such
land with relevant government authority. The property and the land registers are public and
everyone is free to access them. In Nigeria, the Registry is organised in three sections
(Deeds, Titles and Plans).
● The Deeds Registry is responsible for receiving and storing all changes pertaining to
interests in real property.

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 ● The Title Registry provides a thorough check to .all relevant documents before
registration is allowed.
● The Office of Surveyor-General (SG) is responsible for storing land records together
with the plans showing legal boundaries of each land parcel.
The Cadastre is considered as the official record of interest in land, which is the legally
recognized registration of the quality, value and ownership of the land parcel. According to
the International Federation of Surveyors, “a Cadastre is normally a parcel based up-to-
date land information system containing record of interests in land (e.g. rights, restrictions
and responsibilities)”. Furthermore, a cadastre is a public land information system that
supports the public administration of land.
The failure of the Land Use Decree 1978 or Land Use Act 1980 has been detailed. The
causes of its failure include vesting the land in the government and that nobody must own
more than half hectare land, whereas, essential maps covering a State indicating the
ownership of each parcel of land are not available. Details that should be on such maps
should include parcel boundary, parcel size, parcel ownership and sales history, parcel use
and use history and land status (lease, rent or freehold).
The procedure for cadastre in Nigeria has always been by keeping data in files and cards.
The files are stored in the land registry and subject to limited access. They are traced
serially. This method is popularly called “Conventional Paper File Record-Keeping”, that
is analogue method. Its problems include susceptibility to mistakes, tracing a file can be
difficult, accessing data in a file is tedious, it is ineffective as it encourages fraud,
omissions, discrepancies and slowness. All these are eliminated with the GIS approach.
Amidst numerous models of cadastre system that have existed in countries like Tanzania,
Uganda, Britain, etc. Nigerian land registration system is a very faithful copy of Her
majesty's Land Registry in London which had been in existence since 1862. Its function
was to provide a safe, simple and economic system of land transfer in England and Wales.
The Registry was not founded to create a general-purpose land information system for the
public at large, rather a system whereby the interests of individual or corporate bodies
owning land or legal interests of individual or corporate bodies owning land or legal
interests in land are protected.
Several Land Registration Acts had existed in Nigeria right from the pre-Independent era,
these include; Act No.36 of 1924, Cap.56 of 1959 of the Laws of Western Nigeria, Land
Instruments Registration Law Cap.72 of 1963 of the Laws of Eastern Nigeria. The Acts
prescribed that all instruments for registration must contain sufficient descriptions and plans
of the affected land, and the plans must be countersigned by the Surveyor-General of the
relevant State. The idea of land registration and adjudication of title had not been new to the
country; but the problem had been that of decentralization and inefficiency.
2.3.1. Defects of the Nigeria Cadastral System
The defects of the current practice are as follows:

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 1. The same information is entered and stored repeatedly in different registers and
documents thereby making the work strenuous and monotonous.
2. The volumes of paper continue to grow, causing increase in storage space and
management costs.
3. As paper records are transported from one location to another in response to demands
from users, the rate of wear and tear is enormous, resulting in risks to the accuracy and
availability of information.
4. Access to records requires physical retrieval and reproduction, and land transactions can
require weeks or months to complete.
5. Linkage of data using common attribute data is not easily done and there is no room for
flexibility because the data are in analogue (paper) format
6. Human errors cannot be easily checked.
The principal element of any modem cadastre is the digital cadastral map, for it's a large
view of geographic area and it can be displayed and printed at different scales. Its major
advantage is to display the spatial relationships between land objects. It is obviously
organized into layers or themes giving information about properties, buildings, land use
and population. On the other hand it must be a tool to describe the location, the shape and
the contents of each object.
Other documents required in electronic land registration rely on encrypted digital signatures
identifying the party submitting the document for registration. Documents are created and
modified "on-line" on behalf of the vendor and purchaser with a property's legal description
and ownership information retrieved from a centrally located land titles database
automatically inserted.

Key Rules and Regulations for Cadastral Surveys in Nigeria

Demarcation of Boundaries

 Authorization: Cadastral surveys must be carried out by a licensed surveyor with the
approval of the state or federal cadastral authority.
 Boundary Identification:
o Existing records, title documents, and land ownership agreements are used for
initial boundary determination.
o Surveys must respect court rulings or arbitration outcomes for disputed
boundaries.
 Boundary Markers: Permanent markers, such as concrete beacons or iron rods, must
be erected. Each beacon is registered with unique identification numbers.
Organization of Cadastral Surveys

 Approval to Survey: Surveyors must obtain permission from the state or federal
Surveyor General before conducting cadastral surveys.

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  Use of Survey Plans:
o All survey plans must follow the specified Nigerian coordinate system
(Minna Datum, UTM Zone 31).
o Surveys must align with national geodetic control networks.
 Notification: Landowners, neighbors, and stakeholders must be informed of the
survey schedule in advance to ensure participation and transparency

Procedure for Conducting Cadastral Surveys

1. Pre-Survey Activities

 Reconnaissance Survey: A preliminary survey to assess the area, locate existing

boundaries, and determine control points. Visit the site to assess terrain, existing
markers, and potential challenges. Identify reference points and gather information
from landowners or authorities.
 Permit Acquisition: Obtain necessary permits or consents from the state Surveyor
General and cadastral office.
 Research: Review legal documents, deeds, and historical survey records. Verify land
ownership and boundary descriptions.

2. Field Operations

Establishing Control Points

 Set up a network of control points using GPS or traditional instruments (e.g., total
stations).
 Ensure control points are tied to a national or local coordinate system.

Boundary Demarcation:

o Install boundary markers at all significant points, such as corners and

intersections.
o Ensure visibility of markers for future verification.

Data Collection:

o Measurements must meet prescribed accuracy levels (e.g., angular, linear, and
positional tolerances).
o Use surveying instruments (e.g., total stations, GPS) to measure distances,
angles, and elevations.
o Use modern equipment like GPS, total stations, or drones for precise data
collection.
o Record natural and artificial features (e.g., rivers, roads, buildings) that may
affect boundaries.
o Document all measurements and observations in field notes or digital devices.

Quality Control

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  Double-check measurements and markers for accuracy.
 Cross-verify data with existing records or adjacent surveys.

3. Post-Survey Activities

Map and Plan Preparation

 Create cadastral maps showing property boundaries, dimensions, and features.

 Include legal descriptions, scale, and a north arrow.
 Ensure compliance with local regulations and standards.
 Include coordinates, dimensions, bearings, and distances.
 Clearly indicate beacons, natural features, and adjacent plots.

Verification and Validation:

o Plans must be authenticated with a Red Seal from the Surveyor

 Cross-check survey results with legal descriptions and historical records.
 Resolve discrepancies or conflicts in boundary definitions.
 Obtain approvals from relevant authorities or landowners.

Documentation/Record Keeping/ Filing and Registration

 Prepare survey reports detailing methods, instruments, and findings.

 Include field notes, sketches, and photographs as supporting evidence.
 Attach legal documents (e.g., deeds, titles) to the survey records.

 Approved survey plans are entered into the state or federal cadastral registry.
 Submit final survey records to the appropriate land registry or government agency.
 Ensure records are properly indexed and accessible for future reference.

Nigeria’s Land Surveying: Standards, Ethics, and Practice

Introduction

In Nigeria, the land surveying industry plays a crucial role in the country’s development and
infrastructural growth.

Land surveyors are responsible for measuring and mapping land, ensuring accuracy and
fairness in property ownership and land use.

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 History of Land Surveying in Nigeria

A. Early methods of land measurement and boundaries setting

Land surveying in Nigeria dates back to ancient times, where traditional methods were used to
determine land size and boundaries.

Indigenous communities relied on primitive tools like ropes, chains, and pegs to measure land,
often using natural features as reference points.

It was a communal effort, involving elders with intimate knowledge of the land and its history.
However, these methods lacked accuracy and consistency, leading to disputes and conflicts over
boundaries.

B. Introduction of modern land surveying techniques and practices

The modernization of land surveying in Nigeria began in the late 19th century during British
colonial. The British recognized the need for standardized land measurement and mapping
systems to facilitate administration and taxation.

They introduced advanced surveying instruments like the theodolite and measuring chains,
enabling more precise measurements.

European surveyors were employed to train Nigerians in these techniques, gradually replacing
indigenous methods.

The establishment of the Survey Department in 1900 further formalized the practice of land
surveying in Nigeria.

C. Contributions of colonialism in shaping Nigeria’s land surveying system

Colonialism played a significant role in shaping Nigeria’s land surveying system as it exists
today.

British influence introduced a system of cadastral surveys, which involved the demarcation of
land boundaries and creation of land registers.

These surveys aimed to establish legal frameworks for land ownership, reducing conflicts and
promoting investment and development.

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 Land surveying became an essential tool for land tenure, land disputes, and land administration
in Nigeria.

However, colonial policies also resulted in the displacement and marginalization of indigenous
communities, leading to land injustices.

These historical legacies continue to affect Nigeria’s land surveying practices and the country’s
ongoing land reform efforts.

Land Surveying Standards in Nigeria

Legislative frameworks and regulatory bodies
Land surveying in Nigeria operates within a legislative framework that sets standards and
guidelines for surveying practice.

These frameworks are enforced by regulatory bodies to ensure professionalism and ethical
conduct.

In Nigeria, land surveying operates within a well-defined legislative and regulatory

framework to ensure professionalism, accuracy, and ethical conduct. Below are five key
legislative frameworks and regulatory bodies governing the practice of surveying in Nigeria:

Legislative Frameworks

1. Surveyors Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON) Act (CAP S13, LFN 2004)
Governs the licensing and regulation of professional surveyors.
o Establishes SURCON as the regulatory body for professional
surveyors in Nigeria.
o Sets standards for licensing, training, and professional conduct
of surveyors.

2. Survey Coordination Act of 1962

o Regulates surveying activities, ensuring coordination among
surveyors.
o Prevents duplication of surveys and mandates proper record-
keeping.

3. Land Use Act of 1978

Establishes the authority of the government over land and mandates cadastral surveys
for proper land administration.

o Governs land ownership and administration, impacting land

surveying practices.

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 o Requires government approval for land surveys and cadastral
mapping.

4. National Urban and Regional Planning Act (CAP N138, LFN 2004)
o Provides guidelines for spatial planning, which surveyors
contribute to through mapping and land analysis.
o Ensures that surveying data aligns with national development
goals.

5. Nigerian Institution of Surveyors (NIS) Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct

o Sets ethical guidelines for surveyors regarding integrity,
confidentiality, and professional responsibility.
o Mandates adherence to best practices in surveying and
geospatial data collection.

Regulatory Bodies

1. Surveyors Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON) – The

primary body responsible for regulating and licensing professional
surveyors.
2. Nigerian Institution of Surveyors (NIS) – A professional
association that promotes best practices and continuous
professional development.
3. Office of the Surveyor General of the Federation (OSGOF) –
Oversees geospatial data management and national mapping
policies.

Functions of OSGOF

i. Managing the pool of surveyors in the Federal Civil Service;

ii. Production and updating of technical manuals; instructions and specifications(s) for
surveying and mapping projects;
iii. Creating/updating the geospatial data bank for the Federal Government;
iv. Monitoring all survey activities in the country in liason with the States Surveyor-
General; and
v. Coordinating the activities of Federal School of Surveying, Oyo and the Surveyor
Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON)

4. State Surveyor-General Offices – Regulate land surveying at the

state level, ensuring compliance with national standards.
5. Federal Ministry of Works and Housing – Provides oversight on
survey-related activities, particularly in urban development and
infrastructure projects.

These frameworks and regulatory bodies work collectively to maintain high standards of
professionalism, ethical conduct, and accuracy in surveying practices across Nigeria.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Land Surveying Practices in Nigeria

In Nigeria, the land surveying process involves various steps and procedures to ensure accuracy.
Land surveys play a crucial role in land transactions, providing necessary information about
boundaries, ownership, and rights.

Challenges faced by land surveyors in Nigeria

1. Political interference: Land surveyors often face interference from politicians, which hinders
their ability to carry out their tasks objectively.

2. Land disputes and conflicts: Nigeria experiences numerous land disputes, making it
challenging for surveyors to resolve boundary issues.

3. Lack of public awareness and appreciation: Many Nigerians are unaware of the importance
of land surveys, leading to a lack of appreciation for the work of surveyors.

The impact of accurate land surveys in specific cases

1. Resolving Land Disputes: In many cases, accurate land surveys have helped settle long-
standing land disputes, ensuring peace and harmony among communities.

2. Securing Property Rights: Accurate land surveys provide legal evidence of land ownership,
protecting individuals’ property rights and encouraging investment in real estate.

3. Infrastructure Development: Precise land surveys contribute to the planning and construction
of roads, bridges, and other infrastructure projects, promoting economic development.

4. Environmental Conservation: Accurate land surveys assist in identifying ecologically

sensitive areas, enabling the preservation of natural resources and biodiversity.

5. Urban Planning: With precise land surveys, urban planners can efficiently allocate land for
residential, commercial, and recreational purposes, ensuring sustainable development.

6. Agricultural Expansion: Accurate land surveys aid in identifying suitable areas for agricultural
expansion, increasing food production and addressing food security concerns.
7. Disaster Management: Land surveys help in mapping high-risk areas prone to natural disasters,
allowing authorities to implement mitigation measures and protect communities.

8. Revenue Generation: Accurate land surveys enable governments to assess property taxes more
effectively, generating revenue for public services and infrastructure development.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 9. Foreign Investment Attraction: With reliable land surveys, Nigeria can provide potential
investors with secure land tenure, attracting more foreign investments and stimulating economic
growth.

10. Cultural Heritage Preservation: Land surveys contribute to the identification and preservation
of cultural heritage sites, promoting tourism and celebrating Nigeria’s rich history.

11. Efficient Urban Growth: Accurate land surveys play a vital role in managing urban growth,
ensuring the provision of essential services and minimizing informal settlements.

12. Natural Resource Management: Land surveys assist in mapping and managing Nigeria’s
abundant natural resources, facilitating sustainable exploitation and minimizing environmental
degradation.

These tools enable faster and more precise data collection and analysis.

However, it is crucial for surveyors to keep up with these technological advancements and
continuously enhance their skills and knowledge.

Educational programs, professional development opportunities, and the establishment of

regulatory bodies can further strengthen the industry.

Moreover, collaboration among surveyors, government agencies, and stakeholders is essential to

address challenges, promote standardization, and ensure the ethical practice of land surveying in
Nigeria.

Nigeria’s land surveying industry plays a vital role in the nation’s development.
Surveyors, by upholding standards and ethics, enhance land resource management, fostering
sustainability and minimizing land-related conflicts.

The Legal Requirements for Surveyors in Nigeria.

Surveyors play a crucial role in Nigeria, contributing to various industries’ development and
growth. Surveyors provide accurate measurements and data for infrastructure projects, planning,
and land management.

Surveyors in Nigeria must comply with the Land Use Act and other relevant legislation
governing land surveying. Surveyors are essential in resolving land disputes, determining
property boundaries, and ensuring land rights.

In essence, surveyors in Nigeria play a vital role in various sectors, and obtaining a professional
license from SURCON is crucial for their career success.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 To become a surveyor in Nigeria, certain legal requirements must be met. These include
obtaining a degree in surveying from a recognized university, completing a practical training
program, and registering with the Surveyors Council of Nigeria (SURCON).

Description of SURCON

The Surveyors Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON) is the regulatory body for surveying
practice in Nigeria. SURCON is a statutory body established under the Surveyors Registration
Act of 1989.

The main objective of SURCON is to regulate the registration and licensing of surveyors in
Nigeria. SURCON also has the responsibility of ensuring high professional standards and ethics
in surveying practice.
Objectives and functions of SURCON
 registration of surveyors and the issuance of licenses.
 SURCON sets the guidelines and criteria for the registration of surveyors in Nigeria.
 The council also conducts examinations to assess the competency of surveyors applying
for registration.
 SURCON monitors the professional conduct of registered surveyors to ensure
compliance with ethical standards.
 The council has the authority to discipline and sanction surveyors found guilty of
professional misconduct. The council investigates complaints against registered
surveyors and takes appropriate action when necessary.
 SURCON collaborates with educational institutions to accredit surveying programs and
courses.
 The council also ensures continuous professional development by organizing training
programs for registered surveyors.
 The council promotes research and development in surveying to enhance the quality of
surveying services.
 SURCON works to maintain the integrity and credibility of surveyors in Nigeria.
 SURCON maintains a register of qualified surveyors, which is accessible to the public.
 The council participates in the formulation of policies and legislation related to
surveying practice.
 SURCON collaborates with other professional bodies to enhance the synergy among
different disciplines.
 The council organizes seminars, conferences, and workshops to promote knowledge
sharing and networking.
 SURCON also provides guidance and advisory services to government agencies, private
organizations, and the public.
In short, SURCON plays a crucial role in regulating surveying practice in Nigeria.

Ethics in Nigerian Land Surveying

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Importance of Ethics and Standards in the Surveying Profession

Standards, ethics, and best practices are fundamental in land surveying to uphold
professionalism, ensure accuracy, and maintain integrity in the field. Ethical conduct
and adherence to rigorous standards provide numerous benefits, including:

Reliability and Consistency: Maintaining strict standards ensures that survey results
are accurate and consistent, fostering confidence among clients and the public.

Transparency and Trustworthiness: Ethical practices protect the interests of all

stakeholders, promoting fairness and accountability.

Informed Decision-Making: Accurate survey data enables individuals, businesses, and

government agencies to make sound decisions regarding land use and development.

Trust Building: Surveyors must prioritize quality, precision, and ethical conduct to
strengthen trust with clients and contribute positively to Nigeria’s land sector.

Dispute Prevention: Proper surveying practices help prevent land disputes, facilitate
land transactions, and support sustainable land management.

Public Confidence: Ethics play a critical role in maintaining public trust in land
surveying, as surveyors are responsible for accurately delineating property boundaries
and ensuring fair land administration.

Legal Protection: Ethical adherence reduces the likelihood of disputes and legal
challenges arising from questionable surveying practices.

Ethical Challenges and How They Are Addressed

Land surveying in Nigeria faces ethical challenges such as bribery, corruption, and
fraudulent practices, which undermine the credibility of the profession and erode public
trust. These issues are addressed through various measures:

Education and Training: Continuous professional education programs are implemented

to promote ethical behavior among surveyors.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Whistleblower Mechanisms: Systems are established to encourage the reporting of
unethical conduct and misconduct.

Regulatory Enforcement: Professional bodies and regulatory agencies collaborate to

enforce ethical standards and hold violators accountable.

Code of Conduct Compliance: Surveyors are required to adhere strictly to ethical

guidelines established by governing bodies.

Public Awareness: Efforts are made to educate the public on ethical surveying practices
to foster accountability.

By upholding ethical standards, surveyors contribute to a transparent and trustworthy

land surveying practice in Nigeria.

Code of Conduct for Surveyors in Nigeria

The Surveyors Registration Council of Nigeria (SURCON) has established a code of

conduct to ensure ethical responsibilities are met. This code outlines key principles that
Nigerian surveyors must uphold:

i. Integrity: Surveyors must demonstrate honesty and transparency in all

professional dealings.

ii. Impartiality: They should remain unbiased and independent, avoiding conflicts of
interest.

iii. Professional Competence: Continuous skill development and expertise

enhancement are essential.

iv. Confidentiality: Client information must be handled with strict confidentiality.

v. Accuracy and Precision: High standards of measurement and mapping must be

maintained.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 vi. Regulatory Compliance: Surveyors must adhere to all relevant laws and
regulations governing their practice.

vii. Conflict of Interest Avoidance: Situations compromising impartiality or integrity

should be avoided.

viii. Client Satisfaction: Providing high-quality service and ensuring client satisfaction
is crucial.

ix. Continuing Professional Development (MCPD): Surveyors must continually

update their knowledge through professional development initiatives.

Surveyors play a crucial role in Nigerian society, providing essential services in sectors
such as construction, urban planning, and property valuation. Adherence to ethical
principles ensures that the profession remains credible, trustworthy, and beneficial to
national development.

Consequences of breaching the code of conduct

Failure to adhere to the code of conduct can have serious consequences for surveyors. These
consequences include:

1. Professional Disciplinary Action: Surveyors may face disciplinary action by

SURCON, which can result in suspension or revocation of their license.

2. Legal Consequences: Breaching the code of conduct may lead to legal repercussions,
such as lawsuits and financial penalties.

3. Damage to Reputation: Surveyors who breach the code of conduct risk tarnishing their
professional reputation, which can be difficult to rebuild.

It is essential for surveyors in Nigeria to understand and abide by the code of conduct to
maintain the trust and confidence of their clients and the public.

By upholding ethical responsibilities and adhering to the code, surveyors contribute to the
development and progress of the Nigerian surveying profession.

In general, the legal requirements for surveyors in Nigeria include adhering to a code of conduct
and ethics.

PROFESSIONAL PRACTISE
RULES OF ETHICS AND PRACTICE

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 MATTERS RELATING TO SURVEY BEACONS
(a) This issuance of beacon numbers to a surveyor shall only be prepayment of
prescribed fees to SURCON and Nigerian institution of surveyors(NIS)
(b) A surveyor shall apply in writing for and collect as many beacon numbers as he can
prepay for, but not more than the limit approved by the council at a time, from the
chairman of State surcon committee on ethics(SSCE)

MATTERS RELATING TO SURVEY PLANS

(A) All survey diagrams, plans and charts prepared by a surveyor shall be sealed and
shall bear a certificate containing the name, address and live signature of the surveyor
who prepared them.
(B) All record copies of survey plans on tracing cloth or film prepared by a surveyor
shall be lodged with the surveyor General of the state which they were made within a
month of the date of completion, on payment of deposition fees as prescribed by the
rules and regulations.
(C) No surveyors shall backdate plans.
(D) No surveyor shall certify copies of another surveyor's plan for any reason, without
a written consent from the surveyor that made the plan originally, except in the case of
deceased surveyor.
(E) Only surveyor who made plan can withdraw same for amendment after lodgement
with the surveyor general of the state concerned.
(F) For such other services related to deposition of record copies o plans, with the office
of the surveyor general, a surveyor shall pay such amount of fees as the state surveyor
generak may fix for the services.
(G) Any surveyor, who contravenes the provisions of this section of the rules and
regulations, is guilty of an offence and liable if adjudged guilty by the disciplinary
committee to the penalties specified in section 22.1 of the schedule of penalties to this
rules and regulations

REMUNERATION OF SURVEYORS
A) A surveyor shall be remunerated in accordance with the provisions of the
professional sale of fees for comsultants as approved by the Nigerian Institution of
Surveyors(NIS)
B) A Surveyor shall not offer his services at reduced fees nor shall he complete with any
other surveyor by undercutting the fees for his services.
C) Any surveyor, who contravenes the provisions of this section of the rules and
regulations, is guilty of an offence and liable if adjudged guilty by the disciplinary
committee to the penalties specified in section 22.2 of the schedule of penalties to this
rules an regulations

PRIVATE PRACTISE BY SURVEYORS IN PAID EMPLOYMENT

A) Surveyors in paid employment shall not undertake any other survey practise, except

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 where the condition of service expressly permits the surveyor to do so
B) Consultancy units in institutions of higher learning offering surveying and geo
informatics, after enlistment with SURCON, shall be allowed to practise
C) Any surveyor, who contravenes the provisions of this section of the rules and
regulations, is guilty of an offence and liable if adjudged guilty by the disciplinary
committee to the penalties specified in section 22.1 of the schedule of penalties to this
rules and regulations

ATTITUDE TOWARDS PROFESSIONAL COLLEAGUE

(A) A surveyor on instruction to proceed with a professional work upon which another
surveyor was previously engaged shall cause notice of the facts to be given to the ethic
committee of the state where the survey is situated and shall take all reasonable care to
satisfy himself that there are no outstanding obligations between the previous surveyor
and the client before he proceeds to undertake such works
(B) Any surveyor, who contravenes the provisions of this section of the rules and
regulations, is guilty of an offence and liable if adjugded guilty by the disciplinary
committee to the penalties specified in section 22.1 of the schedule of penalties to this
rules and regulations.

ADVERTISEMENT
A surveyor who advertise or offers his services by means of circulars or paid
announcements in any newspaper or magazine, is guilty of an offence and liable if
adjudged guilty by the disciplinary committee to the penalties specified in section 22.1 a,
b, c of the schedule of penalties to this rules and regulations

INDUCEMENT FOR JOBS

A surveyor who offers benefits of gifts to agents or offers any form of inducement to
anybody in order to be assigned survey works, is guilty of an offence and liable if
adjudged guilty by the disciplinary commitee

MISCELLANEOUS
A) A surveyor shall be deemed to be resident in a state, if his/her office/headquarters is
in that state.But where he maintains an approved branch office, such office shall be
manned by a surveyor
B) Surveyor practising fees are due on the first day of january every year. This
provision not withstanding, as from the first day of february every year a surveyor who
has not paid the practising surveyor fees will not be entitle to be issued with beacon
numbers until the fees are paid.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 BEACONS AS BOUNDARY DEMARCATORS

In Nigeria, the practice of surveying and use of beacons was as old as Nigeria because it was
one of the oldest professions practiced in the country, and the base for any meaningful
development.

Beacons can be considered as permanent survey marks of any kind, and is made of concrete,
iron or stone, and includes pillars and boundary posts so made.

Beacons are used to demarcate the actual boundaries between one property and another. They
are surveying tools and are of different sizes and types. People remove any survey beacons,
they find around their domain without finding out the reasons for the placement of such
beacons. Others sharpen their machetes or crack kernel on survey beacons without knowing
that it is an offence. However, where the survey beacons are disturbed or destroyed, the
whole survey carried out based on the survey beacons is rendered useless unless a fresh
survey or re-establishment of those beacons are carried out.

Beacons are placed at the changes in directions or turning points along the boundary. They
serve as the major interface links between the plans and the land area represented in the
plans. Thus the relevance of any plan or survey records depends on the existence and
reliability of survey beacons. Beacons are physical evidence on the ground that the surveyor
has done some work and guides to the land users in the determination of the limits of their
interest and rights on hand.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 According to section 23(1) and 24(1), Cap 121 of 1946, Survey Laws beacons are of various
sizes and shapes and serve a different purpose. The various beacons include:

(i) Boundary Beacons: Boundary beacons shall be constructed of concrete or stone in

cement mortar and shall be mush-room in shape. The underground portion shall be at least
15cm in diameter and buried to a depth of 20cm. The upper portion shall be 15cm above the
ground and shall have a diameter of 25cm. The upper surface shall be smooth and shall have
a small hole about a quarter of 15mm in diameter at the top to form a centre mark and the
letter E.P. L.M. or M.R., plus the beacon number. These beacons are specified on the
minerals Act, cap 121 of the laws of the Federation of Nigeria and are constructed as in
section 24(1) of survey regulations.

(ii) Layout Beacons: Layout beacons shall be 10cm square in section and 61cm long. They
are buried 53cm below the ground and 7.6cm above the ground. The number of each beacon
is written on top.

(iii) Ordinary Property Boundary Beacons: The approved dimension for property beacons
shall be of 18cm square in section and 75cm long. They are buried 7.6cm above the ground
and 68.6cm below the ground. At the centre top, and iron-pin or spike is placed with the
number of the beacon written as appropriate on to the forward stations, and an arrow on top
of the beacons faces for forwarding stations.

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 SPECIFICATIONS FOR CADASTRAL SURVEY

Below are specifications for Cadastral / Property Survey

1.BOUNDARY DEMARCATION AND BEACONING

The boundary lines which must be identified by the land owner or his representative
shall be cut clear of obstacles and beaconed at every change of directions in a way that
represents the boundaries as identified by the land owner or his representative. All
buried beacons must be intervisible.

(A)The demarcation of the boundaries shall be in accordance with the following

conditions:

i. The permissible maximum Beacon interval for layouts survey is 250m and 400m for
survey of farm land.

ii. Adjacent Boundary Beacons should be intervisible, but where there is obstruction
like wall fence, multiple ray observations from proven station or pair of stations can be
used to fix the position of the affected beacon.

iii. When placing a boundary beacon of a new survey, having a common boundary with
a longer and already surveyed boundary line, the new beacon is to be placed exactly on
line and confirmed by angular observation.

iv. Where a property lies on both sides of a road, the survey shall be broken into
separate parcels so as to preserve the right of way of the road.

v. Irregular Boundaries: Where part of the boundary of a property is irregular (e.g. a

river or stream) the traverse lines at the irregular part shall be pegged closed to the
river or stream as much as possible. The edges of the irregular boundary shall be
detailed in sections through ray method such that will make for easy application of
Simpson or Trapezoidal rule for area calculation of the irregular boundary.

(B) The following types of boundary beacons shall be used for property survey:

i. Concrete Beacons of dimensions 18 x 18cm x 75cm shall be used for private property
survey.

ii. Concrete Beacons of dimensions 18 x 18cm x 75cm shall be used for Government
property survey. (P.B or PBA)

iii. A cross (X) Marks on boundary walls' with pillar numbers shall be cut and painted
on the outside of the wall where it intercepts survey line. Public Survey shall carry
double arrows.

(2) METHODS OF SURVEY

The permitted method of survey for cadastral survey is closed traverses which shall be

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 run with Glass Arc Theodolite, Total Station or Electronic Theodolite Equipment and
Global Positioning System. The traverse must be

carried out to meet the following technical conditions:

i. Minimum accuracy of 1 / 3,000.

ii. The traverse shall start from institu checked government control or private beacons
and run on all the property beacons to close back on the same set of controls or other
proven controls.

iii. Multiple ray observations from proven stations to fix obstructed property beacons or
boundary beacon that fell on wall fence position.

iv. Chain Survey method is allowed within the traverse only for picking of existing site
details.

v. Use of Differential GPS.

vi.The insitu check shall be in both angular and linear checks. The angular checks and
linear measurements must be made on sets of three (3) beacons to prove that they are all
in position and undisturbed. The allowable angular difference is 20'' while allowable
linear difference is 1cm.

vii . Where Government controls or private beacons are not available over a long
distance of not less than 5km use of differential GPS or astronomical observation
with convergence correction to the observed Azimuth shall apply.

The angular observations should be maximum spread of 2 zeros with allowable angular
difference of 10 seconds.

Control diagram: A simple sketch shall be prepared in the field book of the control
network, showing the connections between permanent survey control stations and the
new survey. Difference between separate observations should not exceed 1cm.

(3) SURVEY INSTRUMENT

The minimal major instrument permitted to be used for property Survey are:

Total Stations or Electronic Theodolite or Glass Arc Theodolite.

Differential GPS (For control establishment or extension)

Calibrated EDM or Calibrated Steel Tape

Linen tape (for offset measurement only)

Leveling Instrument (For Topographical Survey if required)

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 4. LINEAR MEASUREMENT

Direct Electronic Measurement

Surface taping on fairly level ground

Catenary taping on rough terrain

(5). CONTROL OF BEARINGS

Bearings shall be controlled through the use of dual frequency GPS which shall be
made to control bearing points at every 30 traverse stations or the bearings can be
controlled through east and west Stellar Observation. The following observation and
accuracy requirements shall be adopted:

BY GPS

Minimum of 5 satellites must be tracked before taking of readings.

BY STELLAR OBSERVATIONS

Minimum Azimuth line length of 200m.

3 separate sets of observations (east / west observations).

Minimum allowable Angular difference between east and west paired observation is
10''.

FIELD BOOKS

All field observations must be entered in the field book clearly with neat booking.
Clear Diagrams: Diagrams of plot surveyed must be unambiguously represented in the
field book. Such diagrams will also show permanent features within and along areas
adjacent to the plot.
Electronics field book or electronic recording of readings is allowed but Surveyor must
made sufficient effort to keep job data record that can be easily recalled when the need
arises.

COMPUTATION
The computations can be done manually, by computer program or electronic data
downloading but in all cases it shall include the following:
I. Reduction of bearings showing angular closures.
II. Distances, measured/corrected.
III. Un adjusted / final coordinates/Linear closures.
IV. Area computations.
V. Azimuth computations where necessary

VI. GPS Process data sheet

The required computational accuracies are as follows:-

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Deduced bearing to the nearest 10'
Corrections to measured distance for slope, standardization (where applicable) to the
nearest mm.

Coordinates to the nearest mm.

Area to be computed to:

3 places of decimals for 10h and under

2 places of decimals for 10h 100ha

1 place of decimal for 100ha 1000ha

to the nearest ha for over 1000ha.

SIZE OF CERTIFIED PLANS

Plans should be produced on stable material of size not less than A4 paper size (29.7cm
x 21cm), while record copy shall be produced on film or by any means electronic or
platform acceptable to the office of the Surveyor General of the state.

ALLOWABLE DRAWING SCALES

The following drawing scales shall be used for plotting:-

(i)1:250
(ii)1:500
(iii) 1:1000

(iv)1:2000
(v) 1:2,500
(vi) 1: 5000

(vii)1:10000
(viii) 1:20000
(ix) 1:25,000

In the production of record copy, different scales may be used for the main survey and
the connection where the later is long. Any chosen scale should permit the clear
representation of all measured details, bearing, distances and area on the plan.

Electronic copy maps must be prepared using base data with relevant location
accuracy.

PLOTTING OF PLAN

Plans can be plotted manually or electronically to meet the following conditions:

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Plotting should be by rectangular coordinates' details and irregular boundaries by
offsets or bearings and distances.

Plans shall show clearly defined plot boundaries, details within and along the boundary.

Electronic or computer aided plotting is allowed provided all conditions stated above
are considered.

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS FOR CERTIFIED PLANS

Approved conventional signs to be used (see cartographic specifications).

Graticule lines to be shown in blue. Connections, traverses and bearings to existing

survey station to be shown in blue.

Boundaries to be shown in red lines except where they run along frontages of buildings
when they should be shown by a red verge.

Offsets to be shown by figures in black between arrows.

CONTENT AND REPRESENTATION ON CADASTRAL PLAN

I. Title of Survey.
II. Locality Street Town, L.G.A. and State.
III. Scale and with its linear representation.
IV. North Arrow, Origin, Area
V. Bearing and distance of each boundary line to the nearest minute and centimeter
respectively.
VI. Bearing and distance of connecting line and control traverse line.
VII. Calculated bearings and distances to be distinguished from direct measurement by
use of the letters 'Cal;

VIII.Bearings and distances of each line adopted from a previous survey to be shown
with the letter 'P.O' added (meaning per original).
IX. Area of each lot in layouts to be shown to the nearest.
3 places of decimals for 10h and under
2 places of decimals for 10h 100ha
1 place of decimal for 100ha 1000ha
to the nearest ha for over 1000ha.
Area of plots less than 1ha to be given in square meters to 3 places of decimal.
XI. Any measurements to permanent features that will assist the location of boundary
beacons.

XII. Topographical features measured by the Surveyor.

XIII.Adjacent lot names or numbers.
XIV. Initial Bearing adopted for the survey to be marked 'I.B.
XV. Number and nature of each survey beacon.
XVI. Place, names street names, etc.

XVII. A certificate by the Surveyor indicating that the plan correctly represents the s u

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 r v e y thus: ' C e r t i f i e d t r u e c o p y o f p l a n m a d e b y
me.....on..Signature..............

Cadastral Survey Deliverables

The following items shall constitute deliverables to cadastral client:

Four (4) paper copies of finished plan

Two (2) cloth copies of finished plan

One copy of Technical report

All packaged and presented in a presentable envelope, jacket or bag.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

Methods of leveling

Any of the following methods may be adopted or as the client may specify Grid
leveling, Tachometry, leveling, reciprocal leveling, direct spirit leveling between bench
marks/stations of known heights.

Ideally, all levels should be referred to mean Sea Level. However, for some areas, a
Bench Mark with an assumed height may be used if the client so desires.

Instrumentation

Any of the following instruments may be used- Engineers Level, Dumpy Level, Digital
Level, Total Station, etc.

Accuracy

The minimum accuracy of the elevation difference between two Bench Marks 'D'
kilometers apart is given as 24mm D.

What is a Land Survey Plan?

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 A land survey plan is a specially prepared document that is generated through a field survey
or measurements that is carried out by a licensed surveyor at the precise location of the land.
It displays the exact location and size of the land, its boundaries, and a description of the land
including information on physical features or landmarks of importance, if any.
Typically in Nigeria, the top section of the land survey plan display the name of
previous/current land-owner and the location of the land. Depending on the history of the
land, the name of the original land-owning family or community from whom the original
transfer/purchase is made is also shown.

Image source: internet (image does not show entire upper and lower section of survey plan)

Important Information on a Land Survey Plan and their Meaning

Starting Point (SP): this is the point on the land from which the surveyor began
measurement of the land. This term is sometimes called the Beginning Point or Initial Point.
The SP is made up of two numbers formally referred to as Easting (East) and Northing
(North) which precisely indicates the geographic coordinates of the location of the SP. These
two numbers are displayed differently at two sides of the survey plan, each adjacent to a
straight line that extend from the left or right edge of the plan, and from the top or bottom
section of the plan. The number for Easting end with a unit denoted as mE (i.e. meters East)
and it’s adjacent to the line that extend from the top or bottom section of the plan, while the
number for Northing end with mN (meters North) and lie adjacent to the line that extend from
the left or right side of the plan. Both numbers are placed in line to the beacon or point from
which the survey measurement is conducted.
It is possible to find land survey plans where the location of the SP values does not match
what is described above. Sometimes the SP values are placed in a corner on the survey plan.
Simply look for two numbers that end with “mE” and “mN” to recognize what both number
represents.
The SP is a very important piece of information because it virtually determines the presumed
location of the land on paper and physical location in the real world. It is very common in

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Nigeria to come across survey plans with inaccurate SP which results in lots of red-flags
when the survey plans are submitted to local land agencies for verification. Even when the
measurements of the land boundaries are accurate, an error in SP would render the survey
plan useless. It could cause a land that is genuinely located within an excision parcel that is
free from government ownership to be accidentally placed within a land parcel that genuinely
belongs to government during verification process.

UTM Zone: UTM stands for Universal Transverse Mercator, and it’s a terminology you
should not worry about aside from making sure that the right UTM Zone number is shown for
the region where the land is located. The UTM is simply a coordinate system developed in
order to have universal survey reference points valid across the globe unlike previous
national or local reference points (e.g. Nigerian Transverse Mercator, Nigeria Colony
Coordinate System, etc.). Therefore modern or recently obtained survey plans should include
the right UTM Zone. Nigeria falls within 3 of the 60 global UTM Zones. These are UTM
Zones 31N, 32N, and 33N. The UTM Zone for a land survey conducted in Nigeria must be
one of these three numbers. The image below shows the UTM Zones for different parts of
Nigeria. Simply ensure that the right UTM Zone is shown on the survey plan for the region
the land is located in. The UTM Zone is usually inscribed close to the top of the survey plan.

Image source: https://i.stack.imgur.com

Land Area: the survey plan must show the area or size of the land surveyed. It is shown
close to the top of the survey plan with units of measurement expressed in square meters (Sq.
mts.). This is a number that require high accuracy and attention from land buyers because it is
common in Nigeria that the size shown on survey plans does not match the actual size of the
land on site, which is sometime lower than the expected size. However, it is possible to use
the dimensions provided on the survey plan to estimate the area of the land on your own. The
size of the land would determine its sale price and what can be built on it.
The survey plan should include the scale used for the survey measurement in the field. This
ratio and a graded scale are usually shown in the upper section of the plan below the names
and location.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Beacon Location and Identification Number: beacons are very important for land surveys.
They are regarded as permanent survey marks and are usually made with concrete or stone.
They are placed at specific points along land boundaries, usually at corners or sharp edges of
the boundaries. Without beacons on a piece of land, there is no evidence the land has been
surveyed. Every beacon on the land must have an identification (ID) number inscribed on it,
and each of these ID numbers must be shown at the corners of the land depicted in the survey
plan to match their location on the piece of land. It’s typical for the Starting Point to be at the
beacon with lowest ID number which is sometimes marked with a cross symbol on the survey
plan by the surveyor.
A beacon ID number is unique to the beacon it appears on, and to the land it is placed in.
Beacon stones and ID number can only be purchased by a registered surveyor from the
National Institute of Surveyors, the body that regulates the practice and activities of surveyors
in Nigeria.
Physical damage of beacons is common in cities like Lagos where land disputes are
widespread. Beacons are often the first subject of attack of land-grabbers and hoodlums that
are used during land-ownership tussles. A missing or damaged beacon should be a red flag
and this should incite a land-buyer curiosity to ask questions on why it is missing or
damaged. Do not expect to be told the truth. You are better off doing your own independent
investigation.

Land Boundaries Distance and Coordinates: while it is common for many piece of land to
have four sides or boundaries, and square to rectangular shapes, the number of boundaries of
a piece of land is determined by the shape of the land, which ultimately determines the
number of beacons on the land. The distance of each of boundary is measured and shown in
meters and the values are inserted on the inner or outer side toward the center of the boundary
on the survey plan with the unit “m”. The coordinates for the boundaries are expressed in
three units that capture the precise location (i.e. latitude and longitude) of the boundaries.
These are Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds. You need to be familiar with the fact that there are
360 degrees in a full circle, 60 minutes in a degree, and 60 seconds in a minute. Measuring a
land survey boundary distance and location is akin to measuring its distance and angles of its
plane within a full circle. The angles would determine the values for Degree, Minutes, and
Seconds. Therefore, in a survey plan the values given for Degree, Minutes, and Seconds,
must never be higher than 360, 60, and 60, respectively. You should carefully watch out for
errors in these numbers. However, you must be aware of the fact that almost all the survey
plans we have seen for lands belonging to individuals or communities and other private
entities in Nigeria does not include values for Seconds. Likewise, very few surveys
conducted by government land bureaus across the country contain data for Seconds. So, apart
from the values recorded for land boundaries distances which are placed to the inner sides of
the land depicted on the survey plan, you should only look out for two separate sets of
numbers placed on the outer sides and close to the far ends of each boundaries, ending with
the degree symbol “o" (superscript “o”) and minute prime symbol (‘). As example, Degree
and Seconds are shown here as 360o and 60’. As stated above, do not bother to look for
numbers for Seconds since it is rarely included in survey plans obtained in Nigeria. We are
yet find credible reasons why numbers for seconds are excluded on survey plans.

Landmarks: this include roads and other physical features that exist when the survey
measurements is done. Note that landmarks are not necessarily permanent features and might
change or be missing years down the road, meaning that if a landmark is included on a survey
plan it does not mean it would be found or be present much later. For example, a public park

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 shown on a survey plan may be converted to residential plots or a road could be expanded
prior to your interest in the land.

Surveyor’s Name and Signature: every land survey must be done by a licensed surveyor
that is registered with the local or national surveyor’s body. There are numerous stories of
surveys done by quack surveyors which results in heavy financial losses for prospective land-
owners. The numerous incidents of people’s lands falling unexpectedly within large
government parcels may due to the fact that the surveys were done by quacks or are the
results of activities of unscrupulous individuals pretending to be genuine surveyors. Among
the most reported stories of fake survey plans in recent time is the case of two individuals in
Lagos that paraded themselves as surveyors by impersonating and forging the signature of a
deceased genuine surveyor, which they used in defrauding unsuspecting members of the
public whom they issued fake survey plans with forged signature and name.
The name, address, and signature of the surveyor that carried out the survey should be shown
on the survey plan including the date the document is signed.

Is the Land Free from Government Acquisition or Not? It is quite common to see survey
plans stamped with an inscription that says “This Parcel of Land is Free from Known
Government Acquisition”. This could rightly suggest that the land does not fall within a large
parcel of land that belong to the government and that it has been confirmed by the local land
agency. However, there are numerous stories of lands with survey plans having such
inscription, which the land-owner proceeds to build on, to be re-confirmed as falling within
government land in the future resulting in the demolition of the properties by government.
These type of incidents are too numerous, and are believed to be perpetrated by dubious
government employees that connive with fraudulent surveyors and land-grabbers. A good
way to start prior to checking the validity of land survey plans at government land agencies is
to use the Draw Survey Boundary tool. The tool is a patented application developed to allow
prospective property owners and land buyers to conduct land investigations on their own
prior to heading to government land agencies. This would allow them have a separate opinion
that is devoid of fraudulent or nefarious interest. The Draw Survey tool is part of web
applications developed by Streetyze Technologies Ltd that is covered by a patent granted by
Nigeria’s Trademarks, Patents and Design Registry in early 2019.
Survey plans that come with the inscription that says “Land is within Government
Acquisition” is clear evidence that the lands are supposed to be off-limit to private
ownership.

Survey Plan No. and Registration of Survey Plan with Government: every survey plan
must have a survey plan number which is a number that is used to identify the survey plan.
The survey plan number is what is used to deposit, register, and trace the survey plan at the
local land agency.
The job of a surveyor that carried out survey measurements on a piece of land is not complete
until the survey plan is registered in the state cadaster (i.e. state lands records).You must note
that until a copy of a survey plan is submitted and registered at the office of the state land
records, you cannot obtain a title for the land.
The original copy of survey plan that is submitted to the land cadaster is referred to as the
Record Copy or Red Copy. There are time limits for registration of the Red Copy with states
cadaster, and this may vary by state. For example, registration of the Red Copy in Lagos
State may not exceed 2 months from time survey plan is obtained.

Possible Land Survey Plan Pitfall and Red Flags

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 - Date on survey plan should nearly match date of receipt issued by surveyor to the land
owner. At least the year should match even if there was a delay in issuance of receipt by the
surveyor to the land-owner.
- For a land that already has a building on it, you should request to see the building plan and
compare the date on the building plan with the date on the survey plan. It is not normal for a
building plan to be done before a survey plan is obtain. Therefore, the date on the survey plan
should be earlier than the date on the building plan. And be careful of survey plans with
backdated dates. A backdated date is enough proof to suspect that the survey plan and other
information of ownership are suspects.
- Ask question about the beacon to confirm from the surveyor how he or she came about the
beacons and beacon numbers
- Note that beacons are not ordinary concrete or stone and that they show the boundaries of
your land and demarcate where it starts and end relative to adjacent lands and public
landmarks. The reason why land-grabbers and “Omonile” usually remove a beacon during
land dispute is because they recognize its importance and that each beacon is unique to you
and your land.
- Look out for the stamp on the survey plan with the inscription “Free from Government
Acquisition”. However, note that the presence of this stamp does not mean the stamp is
genuine. When you see a stamp that shows “Land Falls within Government Acquisition” then
it means the land is part of a government-owned parcel.
- Look out for possible spelling error in names on the survey plan. Such error should be noted
and reported to the surveyor in order to ensure that only a survey plan with correct names is
registered with the state cadaster.

Identification and Survey Plan in Land Litigation in Nigeria

2.1 Survey Plans

The Black’s Law Dictionary describes a survey plan as ‘a map that displays the results of the
measurements of a tract with its boundaries and contents’. There are different types of survey
plans; survey plans that deal with land are often carried out to determine land boundaries to
show the size and position of land parcels along with text records explaining the land’s
attributes for legal purposes and land ownership. It is usually done by a registered surveyor.
A surveyor is a person licensed to measure tracts of land and their boundaries and contents.
Land surveys differ from country to country in terms of requirements, however, for survey
plans to be deemed authentic, it must have been prepared, signed and authenticated by a
registered surveyor, and reviewed by the survey department of the state in question and is
counter-signed by the surveyor general to ensure genuineness and acceptability.
In Nigeria, what governs the acceptability of a survey plan is contained in Section 3(1) (i) of
the Survey Act Cap LFN 1990.
A survey plan must contain the following information for it to be detailed:
a. name of the owner of the surveyed land,
b. address or description of the surveyed land,
c. the size of the surveyed land,
d. the portion of the land survey drawn out and mapped out on the survey plan document,
e. the beacon numbers and coordinates,
f. the surveyor who drafted the survey plan and the date on it was drawn up and
g. a stamp that indicates the land is either free or not free from government acquisition.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 Land surveying practices are regulated by legislation, bylaws and regulations that standardize
not only the activities related to land surveying but also the requisite qualifications and
professional experience needed to become a registered and licensed land surveyor. Without
this registration, an individual is not entitled to be allowed to carry out surveys for dealings in
matters relating to land boundaries. As registered and licensed land surveyors determine the
location of the property boundaries of their clients, they are also effectually determining the
boundaries of adjoining lands. This is why surveyors are considered important in land related
matters and they have the dual obligation to ensure credibility of the survey plan of their
clients as well as the integrity of the survey registration systems and laws by complying with
standard obligations and best practices which govern the land survey practice.

The goal of a survey plan is to ensure the correct topological relationship of parcels or
allotments of land, as well as to decide their boundaries and areas to a degree of precision.
Survey plan provides the spatial underpinning of a land title or registry scheme by indicating
the proper relationships of all parcels of land in a registration district. It indicates land parcel
perimeter, dimensions and surface areas derived from scaling. The survey plan will not show
contours or other topographical details unless a natural feature, such as a stream, forms a
parcel boundary. Each individual parcel of land is shown on a broad survey plan; this
typically displays houses, fences and other enclosures and boundary markers, in addition to
numerical boundary and area details. The composition of a survey plan may rely on many
methods of surveying and mapping which can be used independently of, or in combination
with, each other.

2.2 The Purpose of a Survey Plan

The overall aim of titling and registration of land is to provide timely evidence of ownership
or proprietary rights to a parcel of land, as well as facilitate the elimination of fraudulent
practices in other transactions carried out on the given land. In land litigation, the overall
purpose of a survey plan is to graphically confirm the morphology of the disputed area or
parcel of land, its extent and size. During the land litigation process, if a plaintiff wants to
draw up a survey plan showing a contested land or to have it drawn up, the plans must clearly
show the dimensions and boundaries of the land as well as other essential features.

2.3 Necessity of a Survey Plan in Land Litigation

There are instances where survey plans might be sufficient to adjudicate land disputes; there
are some instances they might not be enough to properly address or adjudicate land conflicts.
It all depends on the discretion of the court. The law courts can aptly decide or consider
whether a survey plan needs to be produced and tendered as evidence in the adjudication of a
particular case relating to land or not.

2.4 When is a Survey Plan Necessary in Land Litigation?

Where there is an action of encroachment on a land, the plaintiff must prove the exact area of
the allotment of land he owns and being encroached. When the land is in dispute, the identity,
location, boundaries and other factors must be clearly defined and precisely determined. The
peculiarities of the land in a land dispute can be questioned when the defendant makes it one
in his statement of defence. If he challenges either the area or the location or the design
features depicted in the plaintiff’s plan, the identity of the land becomes contentious. Where
the identity of a contested land is in question, a survey plan needs to be produced in particular
if the facts produced in evidence cannot with certainty determine the identity of the land in
question. It is the responsibility of the party who disputes the land’s identity and wants to
prevail in the case to submit a composite plan when necessary or as the court may direct at

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 the trial. The rationale behind the submission of a composite plan is to fix and delineate the
land in dispute. In a situation where the claimant pleads and serves a defendant a survey plan,
the plan can then be admitted in evidence before the court as exhibit and which depicts the
boundaries and features of the disputed land, and it could constitute sufficient substantiation
of the boundaries as well as features of the disputed land. A defendant who wishes to question
or contest the boundaries or features set out in the survey plan must do this by explicitly
traversing the litigant’s pleading. A mere general or cursory traversing might be grossly
inadequate. Where a survey plan for the disputed land is tendered by the plaintiff as evidence
and is admitted without objection and the defendant fails to file a counterclaim, the pleas of
the defendant cannot be heard to assert that the plaintiff has not established with certainty the
borders of the disputed land. In a situation where a party to a land in dispute have produced
and tendered the survey plan showing the area or allotment of land he is laying claims to with
certitude and ascertainable boundaries, the party may not need to call surveyor to testify
before the court. Under such situations, the court can attach credibility to the tendered survey
plan. A survey plan can also be tendered by consent.

PRINCIPLES OF SUBDIVISION OF LAND

Subdivision of properties in Nigeria, also referred to as land subdivision, involves dividing a

parcel of land into smaller plots or lots for specific uses such as residential, commercial,
industrial, or agricultural purposes. It is guided by various principles, legal frameworks, and
planning regulations to ensure orderly development, sustainable land use, and adherence to
urban planning standards. Below are the key principles governing the subdivision of
properties in Nigeria:
1. Compliance with Land Use Act (1978)

 The Land Use Act vests all land in the territory of each state in the hands of the
Governor, who holds it in trust for the people.
 Any subdivision must have proper approval and allocation in line with the provisions
of the Land Use Act.
 A Certificate of Occupancy (C of O) or Governor’s consent is typically required for
the legal transfer or subdivision of land.
2. Adherence to Town Planning Laws

 Subdivision must comply with state or local government urban and regional
planning laws.
 Plots should align with zoning regulations, such as land use designations (e.g.,
residential, commercial, or industrial).
 Setbacks, plot sizes, and open spaces must be maintained as per the planning
authority’s requirements.
3. Survey and Boundary Demarcation

 Proper cadastral surveys must be conducted by licensed surveyors to accurately

demarcate the boundaries of the subdivided plots.
 Survey plans must be registered with the Office of the Surveyor-General in the
respective state.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 4. Approval by Relevant Authorities

 Land subdivision plans must be submitted for approval to the State Ministry of
Physical Planning and Urban Development or similar agencies.
 Unauthorized subdivisions are illegal and may lead to penalties or revocation of land
rights.
5. Infrastructure and Accessibility

 Subdivision should include provisions for infrastructure such as roads, drainage

systems, electricity, and water supply.
 Adequate access roads and right-of-way (ROW) must be designed for each plot to
ensure accessibility.
6. Environmental Sustainability

 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) may be required to evaluate the effects of

subdivision on the environment.
 Green spaces, parks, and recreational areas must be incorporated where necessary to
promote sustainable development.
7. Standard Plot Sizes

 States and local governments often have minimum standards for plot sizes based on
the proposed use of the land (e.g., residential plots may range from 450 sqm to 1,000
sqm depending on the density).
8. Compliance with Title Deed Covenants

 Subdivisions must respect any existing covenants, easements, or restrictions tied to

the land.
 For instance, plots within estates or gated communities often have specific building
regulations or usage restrictions.
9. Engagement of Professional Services

 Licensed professionals, including town planners, land surveyors, and legal experts,
must be involved in the subdivision process to ensure compliance with all regulations.
10. Community and Stakeholder Involvement

 Subdivisions that affect communities require consultations with stakeholders,

especially when public services or communal land is involved.
 Customary landowners may need to provide consent if the land is under traditional
tenure.
11. Registration and Documentation

 The new plots created from the subdivision must be properly registered at the State
Land Registry.
 Title documents (e.g., Deed of Assignment) must reflect the new property boundaries
and ownership details.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 12. Security and Conflict Resolution

 Subdivision plans should address potential disputes, especially in areas with

communal land ownership.
 The resolution of disputes should follow legal channels and involve local authorities
or courts if necessary.

By following these principles, the subdivision of properties in Nigeria ensures orderly urban
development, adherence to legal and environmental standards, and effective utilization of
land resources.

ESTABLISHMENT AND RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF SURVEY BEACONS

In Nigeria, the establishment and re-establishment of survey beacons are critical processes
in land surveying, ensuring accurate demarcation of property boundaries and maintaining the
integrity of cadastral records. These processes are governed by regulations set forth by the
Office of the Surveyor-General of the Federation (OSGoF) and adhere to international
geodetic standards.

Establishment of Survey Beacons:

1. Planning and Authorization:

o Surveyors must obtain the necessary permits and approvals from relevant
authorities before commencing the establishment of beacons.
2. Beacon Construction:
o Beacons are constructed using durable materials to ensure longevity and
stability.
o The construction process follows standardized procedures to maintain
consistency across all survey points.
3. Geodetic Control:
o Beacons are integrated into the national geodetic framework, ensuring
uniformity and accuracy in spatial data.

Re-establishment of Survey Beacons:

1. Assessment of Existing Beacons:

o Surveyors assess the condition of existing beacons to determine the need for
re-establishment.
2. Restoration Process:
o Damaged or displaced beacons are restored to their original positions using
precise geodetic measurements.
o The restoration process ensures that the re-established beacons align with the
national geodetic framework.
3. Documentation and Reporting:
o All re-establishment activities are thoroughly documented and reported to
OSGoF for record-keeping and future reference.

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DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING & GEOINFORMATICS, FUTA
 For detailed guidelines and technical specifications, surveyors and stakeholders are
encouraged to consult the resources provided by the Office of the Surveyor-General of the
Federation (OSGoF).

Principles of Layout Design in Nigeria

1. Compliance with Zoning Regulations:

o Layout designs must align with land use zoning (e.g., residential, commercial,
industrial, agricultural, recreational) as specified by local urban and regional
planning authorities.
o Mixed-use developments must ensure proper integration of compatible land
uses.

2. Optimal Land Utilization:

o Efficient use of land by balancing plot sizes, open spaces, and infrastructure
needs.
o Avoid wastage of land by ensuring compact and functional designs.

3. Infrastructure Integration:
o Incorporate access roads, drainage systems, electricity, water supply, and
waste management systems in the design.
o Ensure connectivity of roads to existing networks and adherence to right-of-
way (ROW) standards.

4. Adherence to Plot Size Standards:

o Residential plot sizes must meet local government or state guidelines, which
vary depending on density classification (e.g., high, medium, or low density).
o Common residential plot sizes range from 450 sqm (low density) to 900 sqm
(high density).

5. Environmental Sustainability:
o Incorporate green spaces, parks, and buffers to promote environmental
conservation.
o Minimize the impact on natural resources and protect ecological areas.

6. Community Needs and Accessibility:

o Ensure that public amenities such as schools, markets, health centers, and
recreational areas are adequately provided for.
o Design for easy access to all plots and facilities, particularly for pedestrians
and persons with disabilities.

7. Safety and Security:

o Consider safety by providing well-lit streets, proper drainage to prevent
flooding, and setbacks from hazardous zones like industrial areas or
waterways.

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 o Minimize traffic conflicts through proper road hierarchy and segregation of
pedestrian and vehicular traffic.

8. Flexibility and Future Growth:

o Allow for adaptability in the layout to accommodate future developments or
changes in land use patterns.
o Include provisions for expansion of infrastructure and utilities.

BOUNDARIES
What is the boundary?
The definition of a boundary is a line or something else that marks a limit or border. It
implies the physical limit of sovereignty and jurisdiction of a state; it is a manifestation of
integration and is oriented inwards.

International Boundaries are specific, legally recognized lines that delineate the extent of
territorial claims between two or more states. These boundaries are essential for defining
political sovereignty and play a central role in international relations.

Characteristics of boundary:
1 bound together by common law, economy, physical features, idea, or creed with a
government or central authority in effective control of the territory and activities within the
boundaries.
2. This leads to minimizing friction. An example is a boundary between Spain and Portugal.
3. Boundary is an outer line of effective control of the government of a country keeping the
enemy out and the resources in.
4. It is a legal-political phenomenon.
5. Boundary signifies differences in goals, ideology, structure, interests, etc.

Importance of Boundaries

1. Political Stability: Boundaries define the sovereignty of nations and provide a basis
for stable political governance.
2. Economic Control: Countries with clear boundaries can manage resources,
implement tariffs, and regulate trade more effectively.
3. Cultural Identity: Boundaries reinforce cultural and ethnic identities, allowing
communities to preserve unique cultural characteristics.
4. Security and Defense: Defined borders assist countries in protecting their citizens
and land from external threats.

Types of International boundaries

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 International boundaries are the geographical borders of political or legal jurisdictions such as
countries, customs territories, and sovereign states. The process of the creation of a border
is called boundary delimitation. The boundary can be classified into basically two types,
1) functional or genetic classification, 2) Physical or physiographic boundaries.
1) Based on Functional or the genetic classification of boundary:
This type of boundary is based on the relationship that a boundary line had shared with the
surrounding cultural landscape at the time of its demarcation.
A) Antecedent boundaries
B) Subsequent boundaries
C) Super-imposed boundaries
D) Relic or Relict boundaries
A) Antecedent boundaries:
Boundaries that predated the evolution of the cultural landscape are called antecedent
boundaries. These types of boundaries were generally agreed upon at the conference table
even before the concerned territory was fully explored, and colonized so that they are mostly
straight-line geometrical boundaries. The precise delineation of boundaries is relatively new
in human history. Before the availability of surveying and cartographic technologies,
impediments to travel such as mountain ranges, water bodies, or even features such as broad
as forests and deserts were used to separate the territories of political entities.

B) Subsequent boundaries:
Those boundaries whose definition and demarcation had followed the evolution of the
cultural landscape are called subsequent boundaries. Especially the divisions of language
and religion. India and Pakistan, and India and Bangladesh belong to this type. In Europe,
the 1648 Peace of Westphalia gave rise to a more territorially-based notion of the sovereign
state, creating an imperative for the delineation and demarcation of boundaries and the
establishment of border facilities.

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 C) Super-imposed boundaries:
They were imposed upon the concerned communities, either by outside powers or the
overbearing unit between the two. The colonial expansion of European states in the 17th,
18th, and 19th centuries led to the creation of many international boundaries that endure to
this day, even though they were often drawn arbitrarily. As recently as the late 19th century,
European powers delineated boundaries on the map of Africa without surveys on the ground
and without regard to the economy or culture of African people. Until the second half of the
twentieth century, international boundaries were subject to change arising from diplomatic
agreements and military conflict.
D) Relic or Relict boundaries:
Such boundary lines result when a smaller State is absorbed by a larger one, or when frontier
boundaries between States are abandoned and redrawn. The disintegration of states, including
the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, into multiple smaller states, has created new international
boundaries within pre-existing boundaries. At the same time, the German reunification in
1991 involved the dissolution of a boundary that has divided Europe for decades.
2) Based on Physical or physiographic boundaries:
Morphological boundaries are those that were drawn to follow some conspicuous feature of
the physical landscape. This distinction is, however, not correct. All boundaries are man-
made; hence all are artificial. Physical or physiographic boundaries are as follow-
A) Physiographic Boundaries
B) Mountain Boundaries
C) Rivers as International Boundaries
D) Boundaries in Lakes and Straits
E) Forest, Swamp, and Deserts

Legal Framework Governing Boundaries

1. International Law: The United Nations Charter, specifically Article 2(4), prohibits
the acquisition of territory by force and calls for respect for existing boundaries.
2. Treaty Law: Countries often define boundaries through treaties, which become
legally binding agreements.
3. The Doctrine of Uti Possidetis: This principle holds that newly formed states should
retain pre-existing administrative boundaries. It’s particularly significant in post-
colonial regions.
Theories and Models on International Boundaries and Frontiers

1. Hartshorne’s Functional Approach

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 Hartshorne’s approach emphasizes boundaries as dynamic elements that both unite and
divide. His theory highlights that boundaries are not merely physical lines but also serve as
zones of interaction.

2. Geopolitical Theories

Several geopolitical theories influence boundary formation and maintenance:

 Mackinder’s Heartland Theory: Proposes that the “heartland” of Eurasia holds

strategic importance, implying that control over this region leads to control over the
world.
 Rimland Theory by Nicholas Spykman: Argues that control of the “rimland” or
coastal fringes is more significant than the heartland for global dominance.
 Friedrich Ratzel’s Organic Theory: Suggests that states behave like organisms,
needing space to grow, which can sometimes justify territorial expansion.
3. The Concept of Buffer Zones and Frontiers

Buffer zones, often broader than defined boundaries, serve as a separation to reduce conflicts
between states. For example, the demilitarized zone between North and South Korea acts as a
buffer to prevent direct military conflicts.

Points of Conflict and Dispute over Boundaries

1. Resource-Related Conflicts: Disputes often arise over natural resources like oil, gas,
and water sources.
2. Ethnic and Cultural Divisions: In cases where borders split ethnic groups, cultural
disputes may arise.
3. Geopolitical Tensions: Historical claims and geopolitical interests can create
tensions, as seen in territorial disputes in the South China Sea.

International Bodies Involved in Boundary Disputes Resolutions

1. United Nations (UN): Promotes peaceful resolutions through mediation and, in some
cases, peacekeeping forces.
2. International Court of Justice (ICJ): Hears cases on boundary disputes when both
parties consent to its jurisdiction.
3. International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC): Manages boundary
issues between the US and Mexico.

Methods of Resolving Boundary Disputes

1. Negotiation and Diplomacy: Countries can resolve disputes through bilateral

discussions.

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 2. Mediation by Third Parties: International organizations or neutral countries can act
as mediators.
3. Judicial Settlement: Disputes can be taken to international courts for a legally
binding decision.

Introduction to Riparian and Littoral Rights

Definition of Riparian and Littoral Rights

Riparian and littoral rights are fundamental legal concepts in property law
and surveying, particularly when dealing with land adjacent to bodies of
water. These rights delineate the privileges and restrictions associated
with owning or occupying land near water bodies, such as rivers, lakes,
and oceans.

Understanding the definitions of riparian and littoral rights is essential for

surveyors, landowners, and legal professionals involved in property
boundary determinations and land use planning.

Riparian Rights: Riparian rights pertain to landowners whose property

borders navigable, flowing water bodies, typically rivers and streams.

The term "riparian" is derived from the Latin word "ripa," meaning "bank,"
highlighting the connection between these rights and the land adjoining
the watercourse's banks. Key characteristics of riparian rights include:

a. Access to Water:

• Riparian landowners have the inherent right to reasonable access to the

adjacent water body. This means they can use the water for domestic
purposes, such as drinking and irrigation, as well as recreational activities
like fishing and boating.

b. Reasonable Use:

• Riparian rights are subject to the principle of "reasonable use." This

means that while landowners have access to the water, their use must not
unreasonably interfere with the rights of other riparian landowners or
harm the environment.

c. Boundary Determination:

• Riparian boundaries are typically determined by the location of the

watercourse's banks. Changes in the course of the water may lead to
adjustments in riparian boundaries over time.

d. Ownership of Land Under Water:

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 • In most cases, riparian landowners own the land beneath the water
surface adjacent to their property. This ownership extends to the low-
water mark or the ordinary high-water mark, depending on local laws.

Littoral Rights:
Littoral rights, on the other hand, apply to landowners whose properties
border non-flowing water bodies, such as lakes, ponds, and seas. The term
"littoral" originates from the Latin word "littus," meaning "shore,"
emphasizing the relationship between these rights and the land bordering
the water's edge.

Key features of littoral rights encompass:

a. Limited Access:

• Unlike riparian landowners, littoral landowners have limited access

rights to the water. Their access is typically limited to recreational
activities and navigation rather than direct use for domestic purposes.

b. Ownership of Land Under Water:

• Littoral landowners typically own the land under the water body up to
the high-water mark, which is the boundary between their property and
the water.

c. Public Trust Doctrine:

• In many jurisdictions, there is a recognition that the waters of lakes and

seas are held in trust for the public. This concept, known as the "public
trust doctrine," imposes restrictions on littoral landowners' ability to
monopolize or restrict public access to the water.

Riparian and Littoral Boundaries

Riparian Boundaries: Definition:

• Riparian boundaries are the lines that separate the land of riparian landowners from the
water body to which they have riparian rights. These boundaries are typically defined by the
location of the watercourse's banks.

Characteristics:

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 • Natural Features: Riparian boundaries are often determined by the natural features of the
water body, particularly the banks or shorelines. The boundary typically extends to the low-
water mark or the ordinary high-water mark, depending on local laws and customs.
• Fluctuating Boundaries: Riparian boundaries can be subject to change due to natural
processes, such as erosion, sediment deposition, or shifts in the course of the water. Surveyors
may need to periodically assess and adjust these boundaries to reflect current conditions.
• Private Ownership: Riparian landowners typically own the land beneath the water surface
within their boundaries. This includes the riverbed or streambed up to the defined boundary

Littoral Boundaries:
Definition:
• Littoral boundaries are the lines that separate the land of littoral landowners from non-
flowing water bodies, such as lakes, ponds, and seas. These boundaries are typically
determined by the high-water mark, which marks the boundary between the littoral property
and the water.
Characteristics:
• High-Water Mark: The high-water mark, or the line where the water reaches its highest
point, serves as the primary boundary for littoral properties. Littoral landowners typically
own the land up to this point.
• Fixed Boundaries: Unlike riparian boundaries, littoral boundaries are relatively stable and
do not fluctuate with the water's level. The high-water mark remains a consistent reference
point.
• Public Access Considerations: In many jurisdictions, littoral property owners are subject to
restrictions that ensure public access to the water body up to the highwater mark, in
accordance with the public trust doctrine.
Riparian and Littoral Boundary Surveys
Boundary surveys conducted by licensed surveyors are instrumental in precisely determining
riparian and littoral boundaries. These surveys involve the following steps:
• Identify the Water Body: Surveyors locate the water body, whether it's a flowing river or a
non-flowing lake.
• Locate Natural Boundaries: For riparian boundaries, surveyors identify the natural features
such as banks or shorelines to establish the boundary. For littoral boundaries, they locate the
high-water mark. • Measure Distances and Angles: Using surveying instruments,
measurements of distances and angles are taken to precisely define the boundary line.
• Record Legal Descriptions: Surveyors document the boundary location using legal
descriptions that adhere to local laws and regulations.

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 • Prepare Boundary Plats: The survey results are compiled into boundary plats or maps,
which provide a visual representation of the property's boundaries.

Boundary Surveys and Topographic Surveys

Surveying techniques are fundamental to accurately determine the boundaries and
characteristics of riparian and littoral properties. Boundary surveys and topographic surveys
are two primary surveying methods employed in these contexts.
Boundary Surveys:
Boundary surveys are a foundational surveying technique used to precisely define the
boundaries of riparian and littoral properties. These surveys are essential for establishing the
extent of property rights, compliance with property laws, and resolving boundary disputes.
Key aspects of boundary surveys include:
a. Measurement and Mapping:
• Boundary surveys involve the measurement and mapping of property lines, corners, and
boundary markers. Surveyors use advanced equipment such as total stations and GPS to
ensure accuracy.
b. Boundary Monumentation:
• Surveyors place physical markers or monuments at critical boundary points to demarcate
property lines. These monuments serve as reference points for property owners and legal
authorities.
c. Legal Descriptions:
• Boundary surveys provide detailed legal descriptions of property boundaries, which are
essential for property records, deeds, and legal disputes. These descriptions must be clear,
concise, and conform to legal standards.
d. Dispute Resolution:
• In cases of boundary disputes, boundary surveys play a critical role in providing objective
evidence of property boundaries. Surveyors may provide expert testimony in legal
proceedings.

Topographic Surveys:

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 Topographic surveys focus on mapping the physical features and contours of the land,
including the terrain, elevation changes, and natural or man-made features. These surveys are
valuable for various purposes, including land development and environmental assessment.
Key aspects of topographic surveys include:
a. Elevation Data:
• Topographic surveys generate elevation data, which is crucial for understanding the land's
topography. This information helps identify low-lying areas, slopes, and potential drainage
issues near riparian and littoral zones.
b. Site Development:
• Topographic surveys are often used in land development projects near water bodies. They
provide valuable data for designing infrastructure, such as roads, buildings, and drainage
systems, while considering the land's natural features.
c. Environmental Impact Assessment:
• When working in sensitive riparian or littoral areas, topographic surveys help assess the
potential environmental impact of development. They aid in identifying wetlands, wildlife
habitats, and areas requiring conservation.
d. Flood Risk Assessment:
• Topographic surveys can assess flood risk by mapping floodplains, flood elevations, and
water flow patterns. This information is essential for floodplain management and property
protection.
Integration of Surveys:
In many cases, boundary surveys and topographic surveys are integrated to provide a
comprehensive understanding of riparian and littoral properties. This integrated approach
ensures that property boundaries are accurately defined while considering the land's physical
characteristics and environmental factors.
Compliance and Professional Expertise:
Surveyors conducting boundary and topographic surveys in riparian and littoral areas must
adhere to local regulations, environmental protection laws, and property rights. Their
expertise is essential for responsible land management and ensuring that survey data is
comprehensive, accurate, and compliant with legal standards

COMPENSATION AND CLAIM

Nature of Compulsory Land Acquisition

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 Compulsory acquisition is the power of government to acquire private rights in land
without the willing consent of its owner or occupant in order to benefit society (FAO.
2009).According to Umeh (2002), it is the coercive taking of private lands (individual or
communal) or estates and interests in those lands for public purposes. Compulsory land
acquisition is an activity dominated by the government transferring the land ownership
or interest in land from privately owned to state owned where the public interest is
involved. It is a power possessed in one form or another by governments of all modern
nations. This power is often necessary for social and economic development and the
protection of the natural environment.
Land must be provided for investments such as roads, railways, harbours and airports;
for hospitals and schools; for electricity, water and sewage facilities; and for the
protection against flooding and the protection of water courses and environmentally
fragile areas. A government cannot rely on land markets alone to ensure that land is acquired
when and where it is needed. However, a number of countries require that the government
should attempt to buy the required land in good faith before it uses its power of compulsory
acquisition
The procedure for compulsory acquisition requires adequate notice to be given to the
owner, compensation to be paid and the acquisition must be for public purpose (Nuhu
and Aliyu, 2009).
Procedures for Compulsory Acquisition of Land
Land acquisition is through lands department in Ministry of Lands and Survey which is
empowered to acquire land for overriding public interest on behalf of the State Government.
The following are the steps for compulsory land acquisition procedures according to Oyedele
(2008) and Nuhu (2008):
i. Site Inspection:
This is the stage where the locational suitability and extent of the acquisition is being
determined. Inspection of a selected parcel of land by the professionals from the Ministry of
Lands and Survey. The inspection team includes the Estate Surveyor, Land Surveyor, the
town planner and the government agencies representing.
ii. Issuance of notice:
Issuance of notice of intention to acquire land to the disposed owner in government gazettes,
daily papers or by pasting the notice on the trees or nearest buildings, and to yield up
possession within 6 weeks.
iii. Preliminary survey:
This involves perimeter survey which involves the process of determining the extent of the
boundaries and the total land area.
iv. Gazetting and Publication/Newspaper advert:

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 This is where the survey descriptions are publicized and where the claimants are to submit
their claims to the Ministry.
v. Service of revocation order:
This is the publication of the intention to acquire land and the willingness to pay
compensation in respect or the losses arising from the acquisition.
vi. Crop enumeration and valuation of property:
This is where the enumeration of crops on the acquired site is done with the help of claim
survey. Valuation of the existing structures on the site is also done by Lands Department.
vii. Payment of compensation:
Payment of compensation is done after approval of claims.
viii. Receiving of petitions, objections and complain over compensation.
ix. Documentation:
Necessary documentation is done.
A General View of Compensation for Compulsory Land Acquisition
Compensation simply means recompense for loss, deprivation or injury suffered
(Ibagere, 2010). Umezuruike, (1998) defined compensation as ‘placing in the hands’ of
the owner expropriated the full money equivalent of the thing of which he has been
deprived.
“Compensation is to repay the affected people for the losses they suffered, and should be
based on principles of equity and equivalence” (Belachew, 2013).
Compensations for compulsory acquisition must reflect the price which the claimant would
have expected to have obtained for the property on a sale in the open market together with
other consequential losses (Rowan-Robinson, 1990). The whole essence of compensation is
to put the person in a state the person was before the harmful action of hurt took place. The
property owner, therefore, shall be compensated for the losses he/she suffers due to
expropriation. In other words, the affected property owner shall be in the same economic
position as if the compulsory acquisition had never happened.
SUBDIVISION OF LAND

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