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Ukraine and the Art of Strategy
Ukraine and the Art
of Strategy

LAWRENCE FREEDMAN

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Freedman, Lawrence, author.
Title: Ukraine and the art of strategy / Lawrence Freedman.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2019]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018020914| ISBN 9780190902889 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780190902896 (updf) | ISBN 9780190902902 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Ukraine—Strategic aspects. | Ukraine Conflict, 2014– |
Russia (Federation)—Military policy. | Ukraine—Foreign relations—
Russia (Federation) | Russia (Federation)—Foreign relations—Ukraine.
Classification: LCC UA829.U4 F74 2019 | DDC 947.7086—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018020914

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments vii

Introduction 1

1. Strategic Theory 9
Crisis Management 12
Deterrence 18
Coercive Diplomacy 21
Economic Sanctions 28
Limited Wars 34
Exhaustion 42
Acting Strategically 48

2. The Russia-​Ukraine Conflict 50

Origins 50
European Union vs. Eurasian Union 61
Euromaidan 76

3. War 82
Crimea 82
Donbas 90
International Responses 99
Ukrainian Counter-Offensive to First Minsk
Negotiations 109
Stalemate 121
vi Contents

4. The Context Shifts 128

Syria 128
Cyber and Information Operations 134
The Trump Effect 141
Ukraine 147
Russia 151

Evaluation: Ukraine and the Art of Strategy 164

The Fallacy of the Decisive First Move 165
Doing Nothing or Something 168

Notes 187
Index 219
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work began with a graduate seminar organized by Christine

Cheng and was helped on its way by feedback from Christine and
Tim Sweijs. Ryan Evans provided me with the opportunity to try
out my developing thoughts on the Ukrainian conflict on his ex-
cellent site, War on the Rocks, and then Dana Allin and Matthew
Harries encouraged me to turn them into pieces for the journal
Survival. This series of articles benefitted from comments by
Ian Kearns and Theo Farrell, while Nicholas Marsh of the Peace
Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) kept me and others well supplied
with up-​ to-​
date material on the conflict in Ukraine. Anne
Applebaum and Alexander Clarkson offered helpful comments
on the book manuscript. It has been a pleasure to work again
with my editor David McBride and his excellent team at OUP.
Ukraine and the Art of Strategy
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Map 1
 Introduction

‘You Can’t Always Get What You Want’

Rolling Stones, Let It Bleed, 1969

On March 18, 2014, President Vladimir Putin of Russia

announced that Crimea, which had been part of Ukraine, was
now part of Russia. This was territory seized by Russian Special
Forces acting with local separatists at the end of February.
Soon a similar combination of forces was at work in Eastern
Ukraine. While these efforts did not lead to further annexations,
separatist enclaves were established with Russian support in
the Donbas region.
The action was taken because Russia faced an abrupt loss of
influence in Ukraine following a successful uprising against
President Viktor Yanukovych. The trigger was clear enough. Less
clear were Putin’s objectives. One view was that Moscow hoped to
foster a broad-​based movement opposed to those taking power in
the capital, Kiev. Perhaps such a movement could put irresistible
2 U kraine and the A rt of S trategy

pressure on the new Ukrainian government to back away from its

pro-​Western course. Alternatively, the hope might have been that
parts of Ukraine, particularly the old territory of Novorossiya,
might then attach themselves in some way to Russia. Whatever
the original aspiration, by the spring of 2014 Russian efforts were
concentrated in the two Donbas enclaves of Donetsk and Luhansk
(Donbas refers to the “Donetsk Coal Basin”). A Ukrainian “Anti-​
Terrorist Operation” looked like it might take back the lost terri-
tory, prompting a more overt Russian intervention using regular
forces, which reinforced and consolidated the separatist enclaves.
A cease-​fire was agreed on in Minsk in September 2014, which also
outlined the basis of an eventual peace settlement. The enclaves,
but not Crimea, would revert to Ukraine. In return, the region
would have more autonomy. This approach was confirmed in
February 2015, also at Minsk, but was not implemented. Instead,
there was a stalemate, with regular fighting and casualties. The
boundaries of the enclaves moved but not by much.
When the conflict first broke, there were concerns that this
could be the start of something much bigger. NATO coun-
tries challenged the annexation, and Russia was condemned at
the UN Security Council (although its veto ensured that it was
not censured in a resolution). Moscow responded with threats
to other neighboring states and made references to its nuclear
strength, raising the political temperature across Europe and
causing NATO to look to its own preparedness for war and the
need to shore up deterrence. Countries such as Estonia stressed
their vulnerability to Russian aggression. Neutral states such
as Sweden and Finland began to consider whether they should
join NATO. Scares about a wider military conflict eventually
subsided, but the measures and countermeasures continued to
Introduction 3

have deep and significant effects. Western sanctions combined

with a fall in the oil price hurt Russia’s economic performance.
Russia’s attempts to sow divisions and encourage the rise of
parties in the West more sympathetic to its concerns became a
major issue, especially when US intelligence agencies reported on
the ways in which Russia had attempted to influence the outcome
of the 2016 presidential election.
This conflict was a product of the post–​ Cold War order.
Prior to the end of 1991, when the Soviet Union split into fif-
teen independent republics, any action ordered by Moscow to get
Ukraine into line would have been considered the Soviet Union’s
own business. Western states would have commented adversely
but without any basis on which to get involved. For example,
as late as January 1991 the Soviet leadership used force to re-
strain Lithuanian demands for independence with only muffled
Western criticism. Yet by the end of that year the Soviet Union
was no more, and Lithuania became an independent country.
In 2004 it joined NATO, gaining the protections of alliance and
also became part of the EU. Ukraine, once it became a sovereign,
independent state, could in principle follow the same path and
join whatever alliances and economic organizations it chose. But
Russia was never at ease with the idea of an independent Ukraine.
Instead it sought to draw it back into a closer relationship. The
2014 crisis erupted when this effort failed. What would once have
been an internal matter for the Soviet Union was now a matter of
international concern.
Just before this crisis came to a head, I published a book on
the history of the concept of strategy and how it had come to
be applied in a number of settings.1 I suggested that strategies
should be evaluated by comparing the actual outcome of conflicts
4 U kraine and the A rt of S trategy

with the outcomes that might have been anticipated by looking

at the balance of power at their start (hence it was about “creating
power”). As the Ukraine crisis broke and became more severe,
this case appeared relevant to my approach to strategy as practice.
Not only were the affected countries entering uncharted terri-
tory, requiring a substantial degree of improvisation, but also the
comparative strategic performance by the key actors was being
evaluated. There was more at stake with the Russo-​Ukraine con-
flict than just the future of those two countries. NATO was not
directly engaged in the fighting, but it had to consider whether
and how it might seek to influence events and prepare for future
escalation.
President Putin was commended as a more accomplished
strategist than the US president Barack Obama. The political sci-
entist John Mearsheimer described Putin as “a first-​class strate-
gist who should be feared and respected by anyone challenging
him on foreign policy.”2 Putin was already said to have bested
Obama over Syria in September 2013, when the US president
held back after the Syrian government crossed a prior “red line”
by using chemical weapons, and Russia then moved in to pro-
vide him with a diplomatic way out. This made the United States
look weak and Russia strong. That November, Putin had also ap-
parently pulled Ukraine away from the EU into Russia’s sphere
of influence. While this was repudiated by a strong, determined,
and ultimately successful movement in Ukraine, the resolute na-
ture of the Russian response after President Yanukovych fled the
country drew a sort of grudging admiration, even from Putin’s
detractors. He showed that he was prepared to use military as
well as diplomatic and economic means to pursue his agenda.
Western countries were left flat-​footed, desperately trying to
Introduction 5

come up with a response that did not make a bad situation worse.
As time went on, however, without Russia achieving its broader
goals with respect to Ukraine, Putin’s strategic aptitude began to
be questioned.
I was curious as to whether the body of strategic theory I had re-
cently been studying, especially those elements developed during
the Cold War, could help illuminate the conflict and suggest how
it might work out. Could concepts developed for a bipolar world,
dominated by two nuclear-​armed superpowers and their asso-
ciated alliances, help us make sense of this new state of affairs?
To answer this question I presented a paper to a graduate sem-
inar at King’s College London on “Ukraine and the Art of Crisis
Management.” I then developed my first thoughts into a lengthy
blog for the American site War on the Rocks. Eventually it was
turned into a full-​length article for the journal Survival, published
by the International Institute for Strategic Studies. That October,
after a period of intense fighting in Eastern Ukraine, I followed
this up, using a similar format, with a piece on “Ukraine and the
Art of Limited War.” A year later, with the fighting continuing
but little movement on the front lines and a diplomatic impasse,
a final article examined “Ukraine and the Art of Exhaustion.”3
These three pieces are the foundation of this book, although
they have not survived the rewriting in anything like their earlier
form. My original intention was to republish them as they first
appeared. There might be a certain interest in seeing how events
were evaluated as they occurred and not just with the ben-
efit of hindsight. The material, however, needed to be updated,
largely to reflect developments from 2015 to the start of 2018.
It also needed to be made more coherent, so that there was less
overlap and repetition. Originally I also intended to follow the
6 U kraine and the A rt of S trategy

same format, with each chapter exploring an aspect of the con-

flict in the light of a particular strategic concept. I decided in-
stead to open with an essay describing the key strategic concepts
emerging out of the Cold War and their potential relevance for
Ukraine, before considering the strategic decision making as the
conflict developed, and then returning to see what this case study
might suggest about the practice of strategy.
A secondary purpose of this book is to provide a brief history
of the Ukraine conflict in the context of the various tensions that
have developed in and around the former Soviet Union since the
end of the Cold War. I do not claim expertise in either Russia or
Ukraine, and so, as always when I write about countries and re-
gions that interest me, I draw on the scholarship and expertise
of others. This book therefore does not claim to provide a full
history of relations between Russia and Ukraine, or even of this
particular period. There are now many books that do this very
well.4 A number of these address the question of who is the most
to blame, making points about either Western double standards
in supporting Ukraine or pusillanimity in not doing so suffi-
ciently.5 My main purpose, however, is to explore problems of
strategy: How did the various actors identify their objectives and
seek to achieve them, and to what extent were they successful?
This conflict has been seen as a test bed for modern warfare.
In particular, the Russian approach has been described as inno-
vative in its ability to merge the overt and the covert, combining
regular with irregular forces in the field, and in its use of its
own propaganda outlets along with more seditious social media
campaigns to undermine the confidence of opponents while
sustaining morale at home. For their part, Western countries
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References 1: Literature review and discussion

Learning Objective 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 5: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Topic 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 10: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 12: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 15: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 3: Research findings and conclusions
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 23: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 25: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 27: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Conclusion 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 44: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 45: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 46: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 48: Interdisciplinary approaches
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Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Chapter 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Remember: Experimental procedures and results
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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Practice Problem 56: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
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- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 65: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 67: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 8: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 71: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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