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Durability Design
of Concrete Structures
in Severe Environments
Second Edition

Odd E. Gjørv
A SPON BOOK
Durability Design
of Concrete Structures
in Severe Environments
Second Edition
Durability Design
of Concrete Structures
in Severe Environments
Second Edition

Odd E. Gjørv

A SPON BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20131212

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-8730-4 (eBook - PDF)

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Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Author xv

1 Historical review 1
References 13

2 Field experience 15
2.1 General 15
2.2 Harbor structures 16
2.3 Bridges 40
2.4 Offshore structures 50
2.5 Other structures 60
2.6 Summary 62
2.6.1 General 62
2.6.2 Deteriorating mechanisms 62
2.6.2.1 Corrosion of embedded steel 62
2.6.2.2 Alkali–­aggregate reaction 62
2.6.2.3 Freezing and thawing 63
2.6.3 Codes and practice 63
2.6.4 Achieved construction quality 65
2.6.5 Operation of the structures 65
References 65

v
vi Contents

3 Corrosion of embedded steel 71

3.1 General 71
3.2 Chloride ingress 72
3.2.1 General 72
3.2.2 Effect of cement type 74
3.2.3 Effect of temperature 83
3.3 Passivity of embedded steel 85
3.4 Corrosion rate 87
3.4.1 General 87
3.4.2 Electrical resistivity 88
3.4.3 Oxygen availability 90
3.5 Cracks 92
3.6 Galvanic coupling between freely
exposed and embedded steel 94
3.7 Structural design 95
References 95

4 Durability analysis 99
4.1 General 99
4.2 Calculation of chloride ingress 101
4.3 Calculation of probability 102
4.4 Calculation of corrosion probability 104
4.5 Input parameters 106
4.5.1 General 106
4.5.2 Environmental loading 107
4.5.2.1 Chloride loading, C S 107
4.5.2.2 Age at chloride loading, t′ 110
4.5.2.3 Temperature, T 110
4.5.3 Concrete quality 111
4.5.3.1 Chloride diffusivity, D 111
4.5.3.2 Time dependence factor, α 114
4.5.3.3 Critical chloride content, C CR 115
4.5.4 Concrete cover, XC 116
4.6 Case studies 117
4.6.1 General 117
4.6.2 Concrete harbor structure 118
4.6.2.1 Effect of concrete quality 118
4.6.2.2 Effect of concrete cover 121
4.6.3 Underwater infrastructure 123
 Contents vii

4.6.3.1 Effect of concrete quality 123

4.6.3.2 Effect of concrete cover 125
4.6.4 Evaluation and discussion of obtained results 126
References 127

5 Additional strategies and protective measures 131

5.1 General 131
5.2 Stainless steel reinforcement 132
5.3 Other protective measures 136
5.3.1 Nonmetallic reinforcement 136
5.3.2 Concrete surface protection 137
5.3.3 Concrete hydrophobation 142
5.3.4 Cathodic prevention 142
5.3.5 Corrosion inhibitors 144
5.3.6 Structural design 145
5.3.7 Prefabricated structural elements 146
References 148

6 Concrete quality control and quality assurance 153

6.1 General 153
6.2 Chloride diffusivity 155
6.2.1 General 155
6.2.2 Test specimens 156
6.2.3 Testing procedure 157
6.2.4 Evaluation of obtained results 159
6.3 Electrical resistivity 159
6.3.1 General 159
6.3.2 Test methods 160
6.3.3 Evaluation of obtained results 162
6.4 Concrete cover 163
6.5 Electrical continuity 165
6.5.1 General 165
6.5.2 Testing procedure 165
References 166

7 Achieved construction quality 169

7.1 General 169
7.2 Compliance with specified durability 170
7.3 In situ quality 170
7.4 Potential quality 171
viii Contents

8 Condition assessment, preventive maintenance, and repairs 173

8.1 General 173
8.2 Control of chloride ingress 174
8.3 Probability of corrosion 176
8.4 Protective measures 179
8.5 Repairs 180
8.6 Case study 180
8.6.1 General 180
8.6.2 Condition assessment 181
8.6.3 Protective measure 183
References 184

9 Practical applications 187

9.1 General 187
9.2 Container terminal 1, Oslo (2002) 188
9.2.1 Specified durability 188
9.2.2 Achieved construction quality 189
9.2.3 In situ quality 191
9.2.4 Potential quality 191
9.3 Container terminal 2, Oslo (2007) 192
9.3.1 General 192
9.3.2 Specified durability 192
9.3.3 Compliance with specified durability 193
9.3.4 In situ quality 196
9.3.5 Potential quality 197
9.4 New city development, Oslo (2010) 197
9.4.1 General 197
9.4.2 Specified durability 200
9.4.2.1 Performance-­based
durability requirements 200
9.4.2.2 Prescriptive-based durability
requirements 201
9.4.3 Concrete quality control 202
9.4.4 Achieved construction quality 204
9.4.4.1 Compliance with specified durability 204
9.4.4.2 In situ quality 207
9.4.4.3 Potential quality 208
9.4.5 Frost resistance 209
9.4.6 Additional protective measures 210
 Contents ix

9.5 Evaluation and discussion of obtained results 210

9.6 Concluding remarks 214
References 215

10 Life cycle costs 217

10.1 General 217
10.2 Case study 218
10.2.1 General 218
10.2.2 Doing nothing 220
10.2.3 Increased concrete quality 220
10.2.4 Increased concrete cover 221
10.2.5 Increased concrete quality and concrete cover 221
10.2.6 Seventy-­five percent stainless steel reinforcement 221
10.2.7 One hundred percent stainless steel reinforcement 222
10.2.8 Cathodic protection 222
10.2.9 Evaluation and discussion of obtained results 222
References 223

11 Life cycle assessment 225

11.1 General 225
11.2 Framework for life cycle assessment 227
11.3 Case study 230
11.3.1 General 230
11.3.2 Patch repair 230
11.3.3 Hydrophobic surface treatment 231
11.3.4 Evaluation and discussion of obtained results 232
References 233

12 Codes and practice 235

12.1 General 235
12.2 Codes and practice 236
12.2.1 Offshore concrete structures 236
12.2.2 Land-­based concrete structures 238
12.3 New recommended job specifications 244
12.3.1 Service period 244
12.3.2 Achieved construction quality 246
12.3.3 Condition assessment and preventive maintenance 246
References 247
Preface

Concrete structures in severe environments include a variety of structures

in various types of environments. Although several deteriorating processes
such as alkali–­aggregate reactions, freezing and thawing, and chemical
attack still represent severe challenges and problems to many important con-
crete structures, rapid development in concrete technology in recent years
has made it easier to control such deteriorating processes. Also, for new
concrete structures in severe environments, the applied concrete is normally
so dense that concrete carbonation does not represent any practical prob-
lem. For concrete structures in chloride-containing environments, however,
chloride ingress and premature corrosion of embedded steel still appear to
be a most difficult and severe challenge to the durability and performance
of many important concrete infrastructures. In recent years, there has also
been a rapid increase in the use of de-icing salt and rapid development on
concrete structures in marine environments.
In order to obtain increased and better control of chloride ingress and
corrosion of embedded steel, improved procedures and specifications for
proper combinations of concrete quality and concrete cover are very impor-
tant. Upon completion of new concrete structures, however, the achieved
construction quality typically shows high scatter and variability, and, in
severe environments, any weaknesses and deficiencies will soon be revealed,
whatever durability specifications and materials have been applied.
Therefore, improved procedures for quality control and quality assurance
during concrete construction are also very important.
To a certain extent, a probability approach to the durability design
can accommodate the high scatter and variability. However, a numerical
approach alone is not sufficient to ensure the durability. In order to obtain
a more controlled and improved durability, it is also essential to specify
performance-based durability requirements that can be verified and
­
controlled for proper quality assurance during concrete construction.
Documentation of achieved construction quality and compliance with the
specified durability should be the keys to any rational approach to more
controlled and increased durability and service life of concrete structures

xi
xii Preface

in severe environments. Better procedures for condition assessment and

preventive maintenance should also be essential, and such procedures
should help provide the ultimate basis for achieving more controlled dura-
bility and service life of concrete structures.
In recent years, an increased number of owners of concrete structures
have realized that even small additional costs, in order to obtain an
increased and more controlled durability beyond what is possible to reach
based on current concrete codes and practice, have been shown to be a very
good investment. However, increased and more controlled durability is not
only a technical and economic issue, but also an increasingly more impor-
tant environmental and sustainability issue. Although the present book is
mostly concerned with increased and more controlled durability from a
technical point of view, a brief introduction to life cycle costs and life cycle
assessment is also included.
Acknowledgments

Throughout my work over a span of many years to develop increased and

more controlled durability of new important concrete infrastructures, I
acknowledge a number of my doctoral students from recent years who have
been working with various aspects of concrete durability and contributed
to parts of the procedures for both the durability design and the concrete
quality control, as outlined and discussed in the present book. These people
include Tiewei Zhang, Olaf Lahus, Arne Gussiås, Franz Pruckner, Liang
Tong, Surafel Ketema Desta, Miguel Ferreira, Őskan Sengul, Guofei Liu,
and Vemund Årskog.
I also thank the Norwegian Coast Directorate and the Norwegian
Association for Harbor Engineers for very good research cooperation and
support, and in particular I would like to thank Tore Lundestad and Roar
Johansen for their great interest and encouragement in trying out and
applying the new knowledge to new important concrete infrastructures in
Norwegian harbors. As a result of this cooperation, recommendations and
guidelines for new durable marine concrete infrastructures were developed
and adopted by the Norwegian Association for Harbor Engineers in 2004.
Lessons learned from practical applications of these recommendations and
guidelines were incorporated into subsequent revised editions, the third
and last of which, from 2009, was also adopted by the Norwegian Chapter
of PIANC, which is the world association for waterborne transport infra-
structure. These recommendations and guidelines are basically the same
as those described in the present book, and the DURACON software that
provides the basis for the durability analyses is also the same. This software
can be freely downloaded from the home page of the Norwegian Chapter
of PIANC (http://www.pianc.no/duracon.php).
In this second and revised edition of the current book, more results and
experience from practical applications of the above procedures for dura-
bility design and concrete quality control applied to recent commercial
projects, for both Oslo Harbor KF and Nye Tjuvholmen KS in Oslo, are
included. The opportunity to publish all these results is greatly appreciated.

xiii
xiv Acknowledgments

Some preliminary results from the more comprehensive NRF Research

Program Underwater Infrastructure and Underwater City of the Future at
Nanyang Technological University in Singapore are also included, which is
greatly appreciated. In this program, the above procedures for durability
design and concrete quality control have also been adopted as part of the
technical basis for future development of Singapore City based on a large
number of sea-spaced concrete structures.

Odd E. Gjørv
Trondheim, Norway
About the Author

Odd E. Gjørv, PhD, DrSc, is professor

emeritus in the Department of Structural
Engineering at the Norwegian University
of Science and Technology (NTNU) in
Trondheim, Norway. He joined the
Faculty of Technology and Engineering
at NTNU in 1971, where he introduced
extensive teaching programs in con-
crete technology at both undergraduate
and graduate levels. His teaching also
included the supervision of a large num-
ber of MSc and PhD students majoring
in concrete technology. As a visiting
professor, Dr. Gjørv has taught at the
University of California, Berkeley, and
has given many invited lectures in sev-
eral countries. He has been a member of
the Norwegian Academy of Technical
Sciences (NTVA) since 1979 and has
participated in a large number of international professional activities and
societies. He is currently engaged as an international collaborator on the
NRF Research Program Underwater Infrastructure and Underwater City
of the Future at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore.
Dr. Gjørv has published more than 350 scientific papers, 2 books, and
has contributed to many other professional books. He has received several
international awards and honors for his research. He has been a Fellow of
the American Concrete Institute since 1989. From 1971 to 1995, he was con-
tinuously involved in the development and construction of all the offshore
concrete platforms for oil and gas explorations in the North Sea. Dr. Gjørv’s
research includes advanced concrete materials and concrete construction as
well as durability and performance of concrete structures in severe environ-
ments. He can be contacted through his website, http://folk.ntnu.no/gjorv/.

xv
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