Focus on Contact

Principles of Contact Technology

Contact resistance

Tensile strength

Optimum
area
Tensile strength

Contact resistance

Compression force

www.pfisterer.com
 Section 1: 4 The importance of contact quality for
supply security and experience with
contacts of varying quality from energy
markets worldwide
Section 2: 6 The interdependency of contact force and
transfer resistance, the step from apparent
contact surfaces to defined contact points
Section 3: 9 Contact aging mechanisms and effective
counter measures
Section 4: 12 Life cycles of several decades despite
natural contact aging: Construction of
connectors true to principle and proper
installation, illustrated using commonly
used terminals as examples
Section 5: 17 An overview over the classic connetion
technologies crimping, plugging and bolting
as well as insights into the design of
progressive terminals that do more than
just withstand contact aging
Section 6: 24 Benefits and drawbacks of on-site checks
of contacts in use as well as the most
important type tests to determine the
suitability of new connectors for long-term
use over decades, both with a focus on the
effects of aging on contacts

2 Focus on Contact
 Focus on Contact
Principles of Contact Technology

Contacts are often wrongfully perceived

as the weak points in electric transmis-
sion and distribution networks. The
majority of all failures can be attributed
to either faulty installation or to the use
of connectors of lesser quality. Both
can be prevented – with knowledge of
For many years, Dipl.-Ing. Martin Schuster the basic principles of contact tech-
was the Managing Director of PFISTERER nology. This series presents a prac-
Kontaktsysteme GmbH. He is now the Sen-
tice-oriented view into the inner work-
ior Advisor for PFISTERER Holding AG in
Winterbach in Southern Germany. ings, carriage return and design
criteria of contacts, various mechanical
connector technologies, the mechanisms
of contact aging and failure as well as
options for contact quality testing. This is
valuable information for anyone dealing
with contacts and for those who strive to
contribute to greater security of supply.
This includes network planners, system
managers, maintenance staff, installers
and purchasers.

Focus on Contact 3
Focus on Contact – Section 1

Quality to counter
power failures
Figures prove that high-quality con- Changes in technology
tacts ensure security of supply, while For many contact manufacturers, changes in technology
are nothing new. When aluminum cables largely replaced
poor workmanship in this area causes copper cables in the 1950s through the 70s, manufacturers
the majority of dropouts in power grids. forged new paths in contact technology. The patented
SICON bolted connector by PFISTERER is a result of this
This first section will focus on experi- shift. It presents a convincing alternative for all applications
ence with contacts of varying quality that allow for a switch from crimp connections to bolted
from energy markets around the world. connections. The crimping technique is very effective but
it does have a history of causing power failures. The cause:
The principle of crimping is based on fixed sizes. Each
conductor cross-section is associated with specific sleeve
A Canadian energy supplier aimed to find out what exactly cross-sections and tools. These predefined frames
the typical causes for power failures were. The results of surpassed what market and cable technology were able
this survey from 2009: Almost 40 % of all supply disruptions to provide. Since cable costs increase with each kilometer
can be directly attributed to faulty contacts, with an ad- in length, they are produced more and more efficiently.
ditional 9.7 % being indirectly related to contact design. The individual wires are pressed together more tightly, thus
No wonder: Contacts have been around since households making the cable more compact so that it requires less
and businesses were first connected to power grids. They insulating material. Result: Something described as a 95 mm²
have been doing their job for decades. However, knowledge copper cable can come in a variety of forms in practice.
about the underlying technical principles and their In addition to the various cable designs, there were now
importance has been shrinking for years as well. There new cable cross-sections. Sleeves and tools, however,
are several reasons for this phenomenon: In the past, stand- remained the same. Thus, since work in power grids is
ardized cables dominated the networks and there were always an urgent matter, technicians tend to use the next
connection specialists for each cable type. In recent years, best thing when the perfect part is not available.
however, the energy markets have been changing rapidly
and energy supply companies evolved along with them.
Supply areas were merged, new cable materials caught on,
and the increasing energy demand was met by ever larger Causes of power failures
cable cross-sections. It is not unusual to find up to seven
different cable types in a single distribution network. At the A Canadian energy supplier researched the causes of
same time, installers today also act as all-round talents power grid failures. These are the results of this 2009
for the basic supply areas of energy, water and gas. What survey:
is needed now are reliable contacts that can be flexibly used
in a variety of applications while being easy and safe to install. „„ Loose contacts or contact components 38,3 %
„„ Moisture 17,4 %
„„ Line disruptions (any except lightning) 10,4 %
„„ Defective or insufficient insulation 9,9 %
„„ Foreign objects / short circuits events 7,3 %
„„ Overloading / insufficient capacity 2,4 %
„„ Dust, sand and oil deposits 2,2 %
„„ All other causes 12,0 %

Small cause, big damage: Improper contacts

disable expensive operating equipment.

4 Focus on Contact
No network without contact
Energy demand is as high as never before. In fact, it is still Cheap or worth the money?
on the rise. Thirty to forty year-old networks are utilized to When determining the “total cost throughout the entire
full capacity today. This takes us to the point of the matter: service life”, the product price is only one item. In addition
the importance of contact technology for supply security. to that, one needs to consider installation, maintenance
Just like communities rely on social contacts, the function- and logistics as well as costs incurred by failures and
ing of power grids largely depends on the effectiveness of compensation. A € 50 product, which may initially appear
its electrotechnical contacts. Despite high network loads, cost-effective, with a failure rate of 1 % and an installation
the power failure rates recorded worldwide show that re- time of one hour achieves € 115,000.00 in annual costs.
quirements for contact quality still vary greatly from one A € 70 product in a higher quality design with a failure rate
country to the next. In Germany, electricity stops flowing for of 0.5 % and an installation time of one hour only costs
seven minutes per year and end user. In the US, outages € 97,000.00 now. The most cost-effective solution is the
amount to a total of nine hours. In Thailand, this number is € 90 product with a failure rate of 0.5 % and an assembly
14 hours. In Bangkok alone, there were approximately time of half an hour: € 85,000.00 This is not exactly a
1500 MV joint failures in one year. In July 2012, Indian negligible sum considering that operating equipment worth
power grids collapsed on two consecutive days due to several millions sometimes depend on € 10 contacts.
overloading. According to press reports, this left between There is a reason energy supply companies and indus-
600 and 700 million people without power. Even if one could trial groups focus more on quality again when selecting
consider such enormous failures to be exceptions to the contact technologies, with criteria including material,
rule, high-quality contacts do pay off, even in the medium connection technology, and contact design.
term, as the European association of cable accessory man-
ufacturers showed using the “Total Cost of Ownership”
method.

Thermal images reveal what the human eye is unable to see:

Faulty connections as a cause for significant increases in contact resistance (Source: www.ITK-Messtechnik.de)

Focus on Contact 5
Focus on Contact – Section 2 Section 2 shows how contacts can be

Force vs.
used to achieve the best possible flow of
current: The interdependency of contact
force and transfer resistance, the step

Resistance. from apparent contact surfaces to

defined contact points.

Apparent
and defined
The joints between two metallic busbars are an important
key to understanding contact technology. In order for the
current to flow from one busbar to the other, their ends are
overlapped. At first sight, this is an ideal contact point:

contact
two flat surfaces placed flush on top of one another, so that
electricity can flow across the entire overlapping area. A
look under the microscope, however, shows how deceiving
this can be.

It reveals a jagged silhouette with peaks and valleys. These

irregularities in the material surfaces, called roughness
in surface physics, have an effect on contacts: Contact sur-
faces that seemingly cover 100%, as numerous measure-
ments indicate, effectively shrink to very few me­t allic and
therefore electrical contact points, which only make up
approximately five per cent of the entire overlapping
surface.

Overcoming the resistance. With force.

Just like water forces its way through a river bed blocked
by debris, electricity must find a path through these tight
passages. The consequence: extremely high contact re-
sistances, which could – in the worst case – lead to melting
at some points, thus damaging the contact points. In
order to lower the resistances, force is exerted onto the
contact point by crimping or bolting. This drives the peaks
of the material surfaces into one another, extensively flat-
tens distortions, thus creating the galvanic contact that is
so important. The following applies in this case:

The more force is exerted, the more the contact resist-

ance is lowered – though only until a typical saturation
value is achieved.

Even with a further increase in force, the resistance then

remains constant beyond that point. At the same time, the
contact resistance does not immediately increase again
once the force effect has stopped after the contact is cre-
ated. Only when the contact force falls below a specific
limit value – below 10 N / mm² for aluminum – contact re-
sistance increases again.

This results in a phenom­enon called contact hysteresis in

technical jargon: It takes more force to make contact than
to maintain it.

6 Focus on Contact
The right proportions. Free flow of current. Point displaces area
On the one hand, this knowledge results in the need for the When following the path from apparent contact area to the
contact force to achieve this saturation value when contact metallic and therefore conductive contact, one can find
is made. On the other hand, even minimal changes in force, further obstacles blocking the flow of current: If aluminum
for example due to flow processes in the conductor mate- is used as a conductor material, it only leaves a fraction
rial, contact resistance is increased exponentially during of the mechanical contact area that is actually conductive.
operation. In practice, typical causes include the follow- The reason for this is that upon contact with atmospheric
ing: Unsuitable sleeves or tools are used for crimping. If oxygen, a reaction takes place on the aluminum, which adds
boltes in bolted connections are not greased, the a non-conductive oxide layer. Since the beginning of the
applied torque is not sufficiently converted into the required 1960s, when the widespread use of aluminum as conductor
clamping force. If the torque wrench is not properly set, material became commonplace, failures happened more
the resulting torque is too low. and more frequently. They were caused not only by contacts
disintegrating due to intense flow and settling processes
In additions, there are requirements for the design of con- and lack of elasticity, but also because of the oxide layer on
tact terminals. If a contact is created with maximum-effi- the aluminum. Suitable terminals for aluminum were not
ciency contact force, the terminal design must ensure yet available at that time.
that a minimum contact force of approx. 20% of the initial
force is maintained over a period of three to four decades. Today, self-passivation is common for the cost-effective,
It is inherent in the nature of contacts that the contact force lightweight and thus popular material with corresponding
drops over time due to various physical influences. contact terminal designs: Where the aluminum conductors
must be contacted, the oxide layers are broken. The teeth
This reduction in contact force, also called contact aging, of some tapping terminals, for example, not just break
must be compensated by integrating elasticity in the con- through the insulation but also through the conductor sur-
nection. This can be achieved either through the design face. In progressive bolted connectors, it is broken by
of the terminal or by means of additional spring washers. blades integrated in the terminal body. Both of these prod-
ucts are an example for a rather new paradigm shift in con-
tact technology: away from large apparent contact sur-
faces towards predefined contact points or lines.

Focus on Contact 7
Practical tip: Tightening
bolts only calms your
conscience.
Some errors persist. Such as the wide- 2. To protect the surface from re-oxidizing, it is treated
spread assumption that the tightening with a contact protection paste – particularly with easily
oxidized aluminum connectors. For a permanently reliable
of bolts promotes the longevity of con- contact, the bolt also has to be clean.
tacts. Terminals with shear bolts prove
otherwise: They are designed to elimi-
nate the perceived need for tightening,
and are used more and more frequently.
This practical tip shows what matters
most when installing a bolted connec-
tor to ensure reliable functioning through-
out its entire life cycle.

1. In addition to choosing the proper terminal and suitable

material for the conductor, the cleanliness of the contact
area is crucial. This is best cleaned with a wire brush. 3. It is also greased so that the applied torque results in
the optimal contact force. Since this important step is often
overlooked, some manufacturers supply the bolts
already greased or with a special coating that provides the
necessary lubrication in place of the grease.

Lastly, when tightening the bolts, the specified torque must

be applied – this can be found in the installation manual
or printed on the terminale.

8 Focus on Contact
Focus on Contact – Section 3

Why contacts age.

And why they last for
decades anyway.
Contacts age. However, they are de- One connection – two materials.
signed to transmit power reliably for It doesn’t take much to massively increase the initial
resistance: For example, when a contact is operating in
decades, across the innumer­able inter- a tight cable trench, soil or other particles can contami­­nate
faces within the energy network. The the contact, or crimped contacts can suffer from the
wrong combination of sleeve material and conductor
third section shows how these require- material. In addition to impeccably clean and professional
ments match up with the facts, with a operations, knowledge of the different conductor and
focus on the aging mechanisms at play connector materials is imperative. This is another impor-
tant aspect with consequences that go beyond merely lim-
in contacts as well as effective remedies iting the initial resistance.
to combat them.
The main materials used in the power supply industry are
still copper and aluminum, although the recent rises in the
price of copper together with the trend towards larger cable
The initial resistance marks the beginning of aging in eve- cross-sections are fueling the use of cheaper and lighter
ry contact. The higher this initial resistance is at the time aluminum. So across the world, different conductor and
a mechanical contact is manufactured, the shorter the life connector materials are making contact with one another,
of the connection. Because electrical resistance grows with for example, when a copper wire network is extended using
an increasing thermal load. Since almost all of the physical aluminum conductors. This presents a challenge to the
and chemical properties of materials are temperature manufacturers of contacts, to produce a component which
dependent, at least to some degree, heat promotes aging can be used with copper and aluminum conductors alike.
in most materials.

The effect of the initial resistance was examined as long

ago as 1958 by J.A. Greenwood and J.B.P. Williamson
in their paper on temperature-dependent conductors,
(“Electrical Conduction in Solids. II. Theory of Temperature-
Depend­ent Conductors”, Royal Society Publishing): Where
the initial resistance is 10 micro-ohms (μΩ), a mechanical
connection can have a service life of up to a century, whilst
at 100 μΩ it will be a maximum of fifty years.

Figure 1: Al Elast contact disks for defined contact areas

Focus on Contact 9
The pitfalls of thermals Flow. Recover. Force.
The following classic installation error demonstrates how The correct dosage of contact force is determined by the
two materials thermally react in different ways: If an alu- flow and recovery processes in the materials, which result
minum conductor is crimped into a copper sleeve, the pre- in a natural reduction in the clamping force. The contact
mature failure of the contact is inevitable, even if the sleeve force in any pair of mechanically connected materials re-
size is properly selected. Once electricity passes through duces over time – or more precisely, by 20 to 30 % just a few
the connection, it heats up and the aluminum conductor minutes after the initial installation. Nevertheless, it is
expands more than the copper sleeve can yield. As the possible to produce contacts that have a life span of ten
electrical load increases, the mechanical stress between to 50 years.
the conductor and the sleeve continues to rise, until it ex-
ceeds the yield strength of the aluminum – the conductor Understanding contact hysteresis provides an approach
over-expands and no longer returns to its original shape to solving the problem. It takes more force to make a con-
upon cooling. tact than to maintain it (for further details, please see Sec-
tion 2). This means that the functioning of a contact is only
After several heating and cooling cycles, the unwanted re- at risk if the remaining contact force falls below a mini-
sult is achieved – the minimum contact force is no longer mum value of, for example, 30 % of the initial force.
reached and the electrical contact is degraded until there
is total failure. The only remedy with crimping technology For this not to occur during its entire service life, despite
is the right combination of sleeve and conductor material, flow, recovery and thermal breathing, elasticity has to be
as shown in Table 1. When terminals are in use, the differ- structur­ally designed into the body of the terminal, for ex-
ent thermal expansion coefficients of copper and alu- ample in the form of springy, permanently elastic contact
minum play a role as well. Often aluminum cables are elements (Fig. 3). Another remedy is to introduce addition-
connected to copper terminals. When heated, the conductor al elasticity by using springy washers. In the case of a
expands and returns to its original size on cooling. This bolted connection for example, these are positioned be-
process – called thermal breathing – can be equated with tween the bolt head and the washer, which in turn rests
micro-movements by the conductor. The resulting alu- on the rail to be connected.
minum abrasion debris oxidizes immediately and forms
a non-conductive coating at the contact points, causing
premature contact failure.

Intelligent terminal designs, such as Durelast terminals

Crimping technology:
with U-bolts prevent this movement by way of a sufficiently The right combination.
high contact force on the conductor, a technical trick also
utilized in railway engineering: As a result of heating, rails Permanent contacts.
expand in a longitudinal direction. The resulting forces are
directed into the ground, and thus compensated for, by With crimped connections, the right combination of
the strong clamping forces generated by the ties mounted materials also decides whether the contact will have
at short intervals. a long or short life span. The correct choice of sleeves
and conductor material is indicated by the plus sign.
The minus sign indicates a classic assembly error.

Aluminum sleeve Copper sleeve

Aluminum conductor + –

Copper conductor + +

Figure 2: Protection against corrosion: Al Elast contact

disks hermetically seal contact points

10 Focus on Contact
 Water. Electricity. Corrosion. After assembly, the contact force decreases here too, as
Electrolytic corrosion is another effect that drives contact a result of flow and recovery processes, but the contact
aging where copper and aluminum are used in combina- disk brings more than sufficient elasticity into the bolted
tion. Because of their molecular structure, the two metals connection because of the staggered arrangement of the
have different potentials in relation to the neutral state: At annular cutting edges. The concept of the contact disks
−1.66 V, aluminum is significantly more electronegative, recognizes that as many aging mechanisms as possible
while on the other hand copper is slightly electropositive at should be simultaneously controlled and resisted, because
+0.34 V. they can trigger one another or multiply each other’s ef-
fects.
If the metals touch, and a conductive medium such as
water is present at the point of contact, they act as a cath- Each thermal expansion may accelerate the flow and re-
ode and an anode: The potential difference of the two covery processes. These processes, together with vibra-
metals is 2 V, and depending on the conductivity of the elec- tion, trigger mechanical movements which promote the wear
trolyte, this drives a weak flow of current that corrodes of material just as oxidation and corrosion do. And that is
the more electronegative metal. The aluminum becomes only part of the spectrum of negative synergies that con-
pitted, contact points disappear and the remaining con­tact tribute to even more aging mechanisms. Their interaction
area is undermined. To prevent this, the design should may be complex, but their negative effects are clear to see:
separate different metals from one another in situations high temperatures, increasing electrical resistance, de-
where they could come into contact with an electrolyte. creasing contact force – all harbingers of contact failure.

Here, a brush stroke of insulating resin just few millimeters Reliable at full capacity.
wide at the junction of the two materials is sufficient, as Finally, each terminal must be designed and utilized in ac-
the −2 V voltage cannot generate a current even over this cordance with its expected loads. The higher the constant
short strip of insulation. Another insulation method is to power load, the faster the component ages. More and
inject small plastic parts. For connecting planar sur- more situations occur where connections have been in op-
faces of aluminum with ones made of aluminum, copper eration for thirty years, and are therefore already in an aged
or bronze, for example, PFISTERER has developed the Al condition, but are now being placed under greater load
Elast Contact Disks (Fig 1). due to the higher utilization of the grid as it transmits
increasing power. This is especially true in areas where the
Three aging effects – one solution. proportion of energy fed into the grid is from renewable
These are positioned between the connection surfaces on sources, where often the networks are already at full
the contact bolt. During assembly, their concentric annular capacity. Conclusion: When striving for permanently reli-
cutting edges penetrate through the oxide layers on the ably connections, the relevant aging mechanisms should
connecting faces and create clean metallic contact surfac- be taken into account so that the corresponding counter-
es. At the same time, the outer polyurethane elastomer measures can be reflected in the specifications. Or even
sealing ring closes under compression, hermetically seal- easier: Order contact technology from manufacturers who
ing the contact point so that electrolytes can no longer pen- know that aging is not a new problem but who take a
etrate (Fig. 2). practice-oriented approach to developing solutions in-
stead.

Figure 3: Bolted terminals with spring elements compensate flow and settling processes,
such as this 2DIREKT transformer terminal clamps

Focus on Contact 11
Focus on Contact – Section 4

Long-lasting contacts
thanks to the right
design and installation
Knowledge is only useful when it is also depends on the need to prevent, as far as possible,
implemented. This second report on the a permanent mechanical deformation of the connector body
when the contact is being made. Doing so would affect the
principles of contact technology mechanical functions of the terminal and speed up the pro-
demonstrates, with the aid of terminals cesses of creep, flow and settling which weaken the contact
(for details, please see Section 3). Another important factor
that have been in service for a long time, is the length, thickness and width of the connector com-
how the life expectancy of conductor ponents – with the right choice, the required contact force
connectors can be improved, with can be achieved without permanent plastic deformation of
the connector body. And even with metallic coatings, it is
lifetimes of up to four decades and longer important to find the right balance: The coating thick-
being achieved, despite the natural aging ness and material must be chosen so that electrical prop-
erties such as low contact resistance can be achieved, there
of the contact. The preconditions for this is a corrosion protection effect and costs remain reasonable.
are that the connectors are designed
according to the right principles and are Tolerances without tolerance
The sophisticated interaction of materials and design is
installed correctly. manifested most clearly in the central factors of contact
force and resilience. The contact force must be large
enough to minimize the initial resistance that exists when
the contact is made. Furthermore, sufficient contact force
The general rules for the design of a connector are wide and must remain throughout the entire life of the connection
varied and the trade-offs are complex, as demonstrated by and the temperature-induced elongation of the conductors
the following design principles. On the one hand, the de- must be held in check, otherwise this will lead to micro-
sign must ensure specific contact properties are adhered movements between the conductor and the contact parts,
to under all operating conditions, while on the other, pro- leading to mechanical abrasion and fretting and eventually
duction costs must remain within acceptable limits. Fulfill- to contact failure (see Section 3).
ing both rules confronts the manufacturer with diverging
requirements, even when he is selecting materials: At the same time, the material and design should be such
that the system can “breathe thermally”. When heated,
Steel, for example, is cheaper than aluminum. Moreover, aluminum expands more than other metals. Result: If
with a stronger steel terminal, the required initial force aluminum conductors are connected with a “rigid” cop-
to contact a conductor can be produced more easily than per or steel terminal, they do not have enough space to
with an aluminum terminal. However, taking account of stretch, the conductor flows away but does not return to
the need for a durable connection, steel loses its appeal: its original shape on cooling. Over several heating and
Steel connectors offer a higher resistance to current as cooling cycles, the electrical contact degrades gradually
it flows through the contact points. The result: Higher until total failure occurs. To master this balancing act be-
temperatures that promote the acceleration of the contact tween force and flexibility, contact equipment manufactur-
(for details, please see Section 3). The choice of materials ers need to learn to understand stretching, as there has

12 Focus on Contact
been a widespread replacement of copper conductors by Optimum force. Suboptimal results?
aluminum conductors. In the time of this changeover, Another finding: Sufficient contact force is not enough.
PFISTERER developed the V-terminal with integrated re- For example, when aluminum is used, it oxidizes easily.
siliency – then a novelty, now a standard product. It allows Here, the contact zone must be designed so that the non-
for thermal breathing, firstly by using aluminum for the conductive oxide layers of the contact edges or teeth are
clamping body, as aluminum conductors and the termi- penetrated. This method results in a purely metallic con-
nal body have the same thermally induced expansion tact, ensuring the unhindered flow of current from one
behavior (inherent elasticity). Secondly, the clamping body conductor to another (see Section 2). Another important
is deformed as the bolt is tightened at defined points so criterion is the arrangement of the contact edges or teeth
that elastic deformation occurs, which acts like a pre- in the terminal area. The Donati rule for current commu-
stressed spring (design elasticity). Configuring the way in tation shows that they should ideally be positioned where
which contacts are made provides sufficient contact force the natural commutation is highest (see Fig. 1).
using bolted technology, which also prevents the longi-
tudinal movement of the conductor in the terminal. And And sometimes optimal force is too much force. For exam-
sometimes optimal force is too much force. For example, ple, when spring washers are inserted between the bolt and
when spring washers are inserted between the bolt and the connector body, bringing elasticity. Where connectors
the connector body, bringing elasticity. Where connectors are made of aluminum or plastic, this effect is removed if
are made of aluminum or plastic, this effect is removed if the installation has been carried out incorrectly: When the
the installation has been carried out incorrectly: When bolt is tightened, it creates a high pressure load on a rel-
the bolt is tightened, it creates a high pressure load on a atively small area, and under the tightening pressure,
relatively small area, and under the tightening pressure, the spring washer located here burrows into the “soft”
the spring washer located here burrows into the “soft” connector body, so that the required spring function is lost.
connector body, so that the required spring function is The only solution in this situation is to place a flat steel
lost. The only solution in this situation: to place a flat steel washer between the connector body and the spring
washer between the connector body and the spring wash- washer. This distributes the force over the entire contact
er. This distributes the force over the entire contact area area and prevents the washer sinking in (see Fig. 2).
and prevents the washer sinking in (see Fig.2).

Figure 1: Ideal arrangement of the contact elements. Donati’s rule of current commutation shows that the current density of a connection is not the same at all
points: The commutation takes place for the most part at the beginning and at the end of the overlapping surfaces of the conductors. Ergo: The contact areas
(zones, lines, points) are placed as close as possible to the beginning or end of the terminal.

Focus on Contact 13
Proper installation – lower risks Many findings – one terminal
And even when the vital elasticity is present through design, The implementation of these and other findings were al-
installation errors can endanger the long-term stability of ready carried out in the 1960s in the ISO tapping clamps
the contact. One rule for installation is: Remove contam- from PFISTERER (Fig. 3): The application-specific matching
ination and oxide layers on the contact areas by cleaning of bolt, bolt greasing and torque results in the required initial
and brushing. In addition, use contact greases or pastes – force being achieved. When tightening the bolt, the contact
especially under critical environmental conditions. They teeth “bite” into the conductor insulation and the conductor,
protect the actual contact zones against the ingress of air, thus creating defined, bare contact points. The shape of the
water and salt and thus against oxidation and corrosion. metallic contact plates (elasticity) guarantees a permanent
Added to this is that in the case of bolted connections, it is contact force. Contact plates are tin plated to create im-
only the proper lubrication of the bolt that can ensure the proved and reliable contacts with slightly oxidized aluminum
optimal conversion of the applied torque into the required conductors.
contact force. How significant the loss of force
can be when the grease is forgotten or wrongly applied can The contact plates are embedded in a plastic connector body
be seen in Table 1 page 17. in a touch-proof manner, reducing costs and improving
reliability. In addition, a steel plate is integrated into the
Since installation is often carried out under difficult condi- connector body directly below the bolt heads. Without
tions and with time constraints, manufacturers of contact this, the plastic body would be exposed to excessively high
technology endeavor to eliminate installation errors through mechanical loads in the small area under the bolt head.
suitable connector designs, or at least minimize their con- This design is still the basis for more advanced tapping
sequences. So, for example, some manufacturers only terminals such as the ISICOMPACT from PFISTERER,
supply pre-greased bolts. Another method is giving a me- where the pressure plate is also designed to act as a spring
tallic coating to the terminals or contact zones. Tin coatings element.
are an economic solution that provides added reliability, if
insufficient cleaning and greasing has been carried out. One specification – many parameters
When penetrated by the contact teeth, the waxy tin retreats The construction principles illustrated by the ISO tapping
and closes up around the contact points again after the con- terminal are used in many design rules, which are reflect-
tact has been made. The electroplating process may au- ed in the specifications of both manufacturers and users.
tomatically remove any oxide layers that may be present The long term transmission capability of a contact, for ex-
on aluminum surfaces. ample, is often defined by the initial force that has to be

Figure 2: A classic installation error.

1. A spring washer is inserted 2. Under the tightening pressure, 3. Solution: A flat steel washer is placed
between the bolt head the bolt sinks into the “soft” con- between them (right). It distributes the initial
and a connector body made nector body and loses its resil- force that has been introduced over a wider
of aluminum or plastic. ience. area and prevents the bolt from sinking in.

14 Focus on Contact
applied to produce the connection, or over the length of the the clamping force of 3.8 kN per 10 Nm of tightening torque,
existing lines of contact, or the surface of the contact points for a thread greased with Vaseline (see page 17 Table 3).
that have been created. Multiplying these two values gives an initial force of 30.4 kN
per bolt. To achieve the required 120 kN, four bolts are
One user specification, for example, calls for a 120 N initial used, which results in 121.6 kN, meeting the specification.
force to be transmitted per ampere at a conductor capac-
ity of 1000 A in the terminal of an outdoor switching station. Fine tuning and innovation
In order to meet this, the manufacturer must take account It is different if the user requests the use of M12 bolts in
of the various influences that affect one another, such as steel group A2 or A4 and strength category 80. These
the materials used for the bolt, nut and washer, their sur- have a lower nominal torque of 75 Nm (Table 2, page 17). In
face characteristics (uncoated, galvanized, greased), the addition, the different material combination is causing the
pitch of the bolt thread, the number of bolts and the tight- clamping force of each bolt (Table 3, page 17) to drop to
ening torque. 2.9 kN per 10 Nm tightening torque. The result: the re-
quired initial force cannot be achieved with four bolts for
From initial values to the design Al nuts and A2 washers.
This process is carried out with the help of a table of em-
pirical data. Starting with a standard bolt made of hot dip For an experienced design engineer, this is not
galvanized steel, size M12 and strength category 8.8 results a problem since the numerous influences with their respec-
in a nominal torque of 80 Nm (see page 17 Table 2), which tive tolerances allow for adaptation. Innovative manufac-
is incorporated as a neutral factor of 8.0 in the calcula- turers strive to exceed the required long term transmission
tion of the design of a bolted connector. capability of a contact anyway: In addition to the principles
mentioned here, their latest generation of connectors
If an aluminum nut and A-2 washer are chosen, this com- achieve even greater efficiency with higher safety and great-
bination of materials gives a required initial force equal to er flexibility in use.

„„ Integrated steel washers for

optimal force distribution
„„ Elasticity by shaping the

contact plates
„„ Contact teeth for defined

contact points
„„ Connector body in plastic

for contact protection

„„ Greasing bolts supports

the conversion of torque

into contact force

Figure 3: Even in an ISO branch terminal from the 1960s, all the design criteria for modern terminals were taken account of.

Focus on Contact 15
Contact forces from bolts

Force in kN with torque

Bolt Greasing
56 Nm 80 Nm

A2 F70 without 21,8 28,6

A2 F70 Vaseline 19,8 27,4
A2 F70 M 50 G 29,3 39,6

8.8 hdg without 17,1 25,7

8.8 hdg Vaseline 24,8 31,7
8.8 hdg M 50 G 21,9 32,1

8.8 electropl. tin. without 18,9 22,9

8.8 electropl. tin. Vaseline 32,5 47,0
8.8 electropl. tin. M 50 G 29,4 43,0

Table 1: Details that have a big impact. If there is a failure to lubricate the bolt or it is performed incorrectly, the torque introduced cannot be sufficient to
create the required contact force. Result: A loss of force of up to over 50%.

Tightening torques

Threads Tightening torques for bolt materials in Nm

„„ Unalloyed or alloyed steels „„ Rust and acid resistant steels,

„„ hot dip galvanized (hdg) „„ steelgroup A2 or A4
„„ Strength category 8.8 „„ Strength category 80

„„ RP 0.2 MIN. = 640 N / mm² „„ RP 0.2 MIN. = 600 N / mm²

M6 9,5 9
M8 23 22
M 10 46 43
M 12 80 75
M 14 125 120
M 16 195 180
M 18 280 260
M 20 390 370

Table 2: Tightening torques for different bolt materials

Clamping forces in kN for each 10 Nm of tightening torque, thread greased with Vaseline

Bolt Nut material Washer M8 M10 M12 M16

St hdg St St hdg 4,5 3,6 3,0 2,3

St hdg Al St hdg 4,8 3,8 3,2 2,5
St hdg Al A2 5,7 4,5 3,8 2,9
St hdg Cu / Rg / Ms St hdg 4,5 3,6 3,0 2,3
A2 /A4 St A2 / A4 4,3 3,4 2,9 2,2
A2 /A4 A2 / A4 A2 / A4 4,1 3,3 2,8 2,1
A2 /A4 Al A2 / A4 4,3 3,4 2,9 2,2

Table 3 lists the required clamping forces for select material combinations as a function of tightening torque for a thread greased with Vaseline.

16 Focus on Contact
Focus on Contact – Section 5

From proven contact

technology to innovative
connectors
The fifth section provides an overview Contact technology for contacting conductors

over the classic connection technologies in electronic networks

crimping, plugging and bolting and Compression Connecting

Overhead lines
proves: Progressive terminals can do Screws
Cable
Joining

more than just withstand natural con- Plug-ins Tapping

tact aging. They make installation easier,

reduce the risk of failure, improve occu- Figure 1: Overview over the vast field of contact technology today:

pational safety and work in a broader starting with the three most important techniques to types of conductors
to be connected as well as the three prevalent basic connection methods.
spectrum of applications.

When looking back on the history of contact technology

leading up to today, one can visualize a wide field of options.
It includes all mechanical connections of conductors in
electric power grids, more specifically cables and overhead
lines. To connect these, three techniques are in use
around the world: Crimping, plugging and bolting. The
three techniques are applied to varying degrees for the
three basic forms of contacting: connecting, joining and
branching (Fig. 1). The traditional techniques welding and
soldering, however, have almost disappeared in the last
few decades.

Crimping made to measure

The crimping technology principle is based on the radial
and axial distortion of the sleeve and the conductor ends in
it by means of crimping. Two methods are commonly used
in this process: form-controlled symmetric crimping (for
example round or hexagonal crimping, Fig. 2) and force-
controlled asymmetric crimping (for example deep groove
Figure 2: Contacts with long-term reliability require optimal transverse
crimping). The latter is not approved for contacts used conductivity in the conductor. To achieve this, not only the exterior layers
with overhead lines since the individual wires are pressed of the conductor assembly when crimping, but also its interior layers.
This image shows optimal crimping via symmetric crimping: All individual
more tightly under those circumstances, and as a result
wires show the characteristic angular distortion.
they flow further in a longitudinal direction (axial distortion).

Focus on Contact 17
 This makes the conductor thinner at the contact point Plug-in technology for removable contacts
(cross-section shrinkage) and lowers its mechanical Practice has proven that this works: Since the crimping
strength. Overhead lines are exposed more severely to a technique has become a staple – in addition to bolting – in
number of tensile forces as a result of their own weight Europe in the 1960s, it is now used worldwide, primarily
and vibrations from wind and weather influences, so they to connect and join conductors with cross-sections between
must exhibit particular tensile strength. Taking these 16 and 2500 mm². The important finding that multiple
tensile forces into consideration presents a challenge for smaller and defined contact points can achieve a higher
contact technology manufacturers as they as tasked contact quality than a single large area (Detail info 1, see
with balancing to opposing processes in all technologies, also Section 2), is what crimping technology and the more
but especially in crimping. recent plugging technology have in common. This prevailed
in the 1970s and 80s when cables were used more often
On the one hand, the resist­ance to be bridged by the cur- and when the demand for touch-proof connections
rent drops with increased contact force, which is an effect increased. As a result, this requires fully enclosed contact
manufacturers strive for. This is because the thermal load systems that can be removed again after the initial contact
of a contact increases with the higher resistance, which has been created.
accelerates aging (for details see Section 3).
A more progressive solution for this problem can be found
On the other hand, the conductors are deformed too se- in dry pluggable and touch-proof CONNEX cable connec-
verely when the force on a contact gets too high. However, tion system: A connector is mounted onto the end of the
if their mechanical strength is too low, they tear with higher cable to be connected. The connector is then plugged into
tensile forces. The solution: the contact force is set in a way an integrated adapter bushing on site. Today, all types of
that the connectors meet both the electrical and mechani- plug-in connectors are used primarily for connection, fol-
cal requirements equally (Fig. 3). lowed by joining. Individual products also facilitate the more
rare branching via plugging, for example branch tees. The
development and design of the plug-in connectors is based
on the principle of elastic line contact (Fig. 4).
Contact resistance

Tensile strength

Optimum
area
Tensile strength

Figure 4: In plug-in connector design,

the contact points are defined as
contact lines as well and springs are
added for high elasticity to ensure
Contact resistance that the connection can last for a
service life of multiple decades.

Compression force

Figure 3: Crimping technology design criteria balance electric and mechanical requirements:
For crimping, the contact force must be chosen in a manner that reduces contact resistance if possible
and maintains the highest possible tensile strength in the connection at the same time.

18 Focus on Contact
Bolted technology: lines are surrounded by air and cooled by the wind. This
Traditional and present time usage is in contrast to lines installed underground, where the in-
The oldest technique in contact technology is bolting with sulation retains heat. To prevent the insulated cable termi-
a number of different terminals (Fig. 5) for joining, connect- nals used under these circumstances from aging prema-
ing and branching. We differentiate between to basic meth- turely (Section 3) or even overheating, they must fulfill more
ods: the older bare contact bolted technology originating stringent contact technology requirements. All bolted con-
from overhead line applications and the newer insulated nectors have in common that the contact force is gener-
bolted technology. The requirements for overhead line ated by the bolts (for design regulations in bolt design,
terminals may be lower in some cases because overhead see Section 4).

Detail info 1:
Tests have shown that multiple defined contact points are
better than one large contact area. This knowledge is im-
plemented in crimping technology, for example by means
of multiple crimping: Where the edge of the crimping tool
presses into the sleeve and conductor, edges are formed
as well. These serve as contact lines via which the current
flows from one conductor to another in a controlled
manner. In addition: Due to the crimping force, the con-
ductor creeps out, expands in a longitudinal direction and
compresses in the spaces of the individual crimping
points. The elasticity is stored in these bunched up areas.
This causes the fixed conductors to be pressed against
the crimping edges, namely the contact lines, with a
certain force under varying thermal conditions. As a result,
the required minimum contact force is maintained through-
out the entire service life of a connection.

Figure 5: Bolted technology is not only the oldest contact method A key component: The transition from the overhead line
with its large variety in connector designs, but it also features to the test cable – using a modular assembly made up of
the most advanced terminals used today. elements of the HV-CONNEX system.

Focus on Contact 19
Just like in crimping and plugging, contact technology New technology, new challenges
manufacturers attempt to utilize basic knowledge and One of them: Applying optimal levels of contact force can-
experience in practice settings when designing advanced not be guaranteed because this process depends on two
terminals for bolted technology. Successfully. Using inno- uncertain factors. One the one hand, it is dependent on the
vative bolted terminals, such as ISICOMPACT, makes in- installer’s subjective evaluation to assess if and when suf­
stallation easier while increasing occupational safety at the ficient force has been introduced. On the other hand, the
same time. They are more cost-effective to manufacture torque wrenches used for this purpose are not always
and suitable for multi-purpose applications, which in- helpful either. Another disadvantage: the bolts protruding
creases their range of possible uses. Bolted connectors from the connector body complicate joint attachment.
have the following characteristics: an insulated and there- The first optimization took place when multi-stage shear
fore touch-proof design thanks to a connector body made bolts were used. Corresponding to their name, they shear
from plastic and insulation displacement contact elements off when a contact is created, which makes the application
(Section 4) as well as the one-bolt technology with torque of joints easier. They shear at predetermined breaking
release. points when certain predefined torques are reached.

The SICON connection concept is another example. Its However, this novelty also has its limitations. The prevail-
development was triggered by changing market require- ing demand on the market has been that a terminal must
ments (Section 1): In the past 30 years, the number of cover a cross-section range between 50 and 240 mm². This
different cable designs and cross-sections has multiplied, encompasses the seven cross-section sizes 50, 70, 95, 120,
while installer profiles shifted from specialist to all-round- 150, 185 and 240 mm² and therefore seven different nom-
ers. The development of elastic plastics first introduced inal diameters. The multi-stage shear bolts, however, have
multi-purpose joints to the market. The resulting demand a maximum of three breaking points so that at least four
for flexible connectors that can be mounted easily and cross-section sizes are not optimally covered. On
safely cannot be satisfied by the common solutions. The the other hand, seven predetermined breaking points on
crimping technique is not suitable due to its inherent de- one bolt are not feasible because each breaking point
sign which allocates fixed tools and sleeve cross-sec- weakens the load capacity of the thread.
tions to different conductor cross-sections. This not only
requires an abundance of materials and tools but also The biggest disadvantage of multi-stage shear bolts: The
specially trained staff. The principle of modern bolt tech- technically only way to design them is so that the first pre-
nology, however, has the potential to meet today’s de- defined breaking point facing the conductor shears off at
mands, though conventional bolted connectors do not live the lowest defined torque, and the last breaking point clos-
up to these standards due to their weak points. est to the bolt head shears off at the highest defined

Snapping off
at a torque of:

35 Nm

30 Nm

25 Nm 3. Breaking point for 95 mm²

2. Breaking point for 150 mm²

1. Breaking point for 240 mm²

Complete bolt with three

breaking points

Figure 6: Disadvantage of shear bolts with multiple breaking points: Due to its design, the highest defined torque (35 Nm) must be applied
at the third breaking point, while the lowest defined torque (25 Nm) is applied at the first breaking point. Due to the torque control force
transmission, the smallest conductors (up to 95 mm²) are exposed to a higher contact force, while the bigger conductors (up to 240 mm²
are contacted with a lower contact force.

20 Focus on Contact
torque (Fig. 6). The result: Whenever the bolt must be
bolted in all the way – such as when connecting the small- Detail-info 2:
est possible conductor cross-sections – the highest torque
is applied and vice versa. Thus the smallest conductors For bolted connectors with an integrated pressure disk, the
are exposed to the highest contact force and the biggest head friction takes effect between the pressure disk and
conductors experience the lowest contact force. the bolt, thus essentially between functional elements
whose quality is determined by the manufacturer of the
Not only that: Only part of the applied torque is converted bolted connector. This makes the conductor’s head friction
into contact force. The other part is converted into friction nearly independent, able to be calculated by the manu-
forces. One of them is the inevitable thread friction. As a facturer and to be integrated in the definition of torques.
natural counterforce to the contact force, it increases and Result: A bolted connector with a pressure disk (mT) can
decreases proportionally to it and can therefore be man- create the required constant contact force (three center
aged with conventional connectors. This is not the case for lines) even for conductors with highly fluctuating friction
head friction. In classic bolted connectors, head friction coefficients, such as copper conductors and aluminum
takes effect between the bolt head and the conductor sur- conductors. This does not apply to domed bolts (Ku) that
face. As a result, it fluctuates greatly because in this con- have a rounded bolt top: In this situation, the head friction
stellation it is dependent upon the conductor material, takes effect between the bolt and the conductor, thus de-
conductor hardness and the overall state of the conductor pending on the conductor material, conductor hardness
surface. When using a standard connector on aluminum and conductor surface, all essentially fluctuating factors
conductors, for example, head friction is very high. Thus that the manufacturer has no control over. The
it also poses the risk of not allowing for sufficient contact result: Depending on the conductor, the applied torque is
force. The opposite applies when the same connector is converted into contact force more or less (top and bottom
paired with a copper conductor. In that case, the head lines) and an optimal contact force is not guaranteed.
friction is significantly lower. The risk in this scenario, how-
ever, is that too much contact force being introduced can
cause the thread to tear or the individual wires to be dam-
aged too severely. This is without having taken the impor-
tant factors of conductor hardness and conductor surface
into account.

Focus on Contact 21
The advantage of modern bolted connectors of SICON in all voltage levels has shown that the connec-
The bottom line: a conventional connector alone cannot do tion system meets the current market demands (multi-
justice to different types of conductors. This is aggravated purpose application, easy installation, higher instal­lation
by the fact that in multi-stage shear bolts the detrimen- quality) and that it takes basic knowledge into account (Sec-
tal arrangement of torque and breaking points cannot be tions 2 to 4). In the SICON design, the latter looks as follows:
reversed due to its design. The sum of these effects is dev- A thread integrated in the conductor duct creates prede-
astating: The contact force – a factor of vital importance for fined contact lines. The entire connector body is tin-plated
any connection – cannot be reliably defined with the means and the conductor duct has been greased at the factory
presented. in order to protect the contact from oxidation and to ensure
good long-term performance. The choice of materials as
This cannot be said about SICON, the latest development well as the defined relationship between conductor hole
in the field of bolted connectors. The two most important diameter and wall thickness of the connector body fur-
technical innovations of the patented connection system thermore ensure elasticity: When the bolt is tightened, the
for conductor cross-sections between 25 and 2500 mm²: connector body is automatically distorted in a perma-
The stepless design of the shear bolt as well as an inte- nently elastic manner so that it acts as a pre-stressed
grated pressure disk at the end of the bolt. These two spring. This counters flow and settling processes and allows
characteristics together ensure optimum contact forces the system components to breathe thermally. All of these
with the use of different conductors regardless of their qual- characteristics keep natural contact aging in check.
ities (detail info 2). They furthermore allow even fine
stranded class 5 conductors to be used for contacts with- How long will the contact last?
out causing any damage. Detail info 3 explains how exactly The question of the actual long-term durability arises with
it works. To develop these important functional elements, connector in all different designs. Their target service life
the forces and tensions in the connector must be controlled. of four to five years, however, makes real-time tests unfea-
They are calculated and visualized by means of the Finite sible. For this reason, type testing of new developments
Element Method (FEM). Individual bolted connector func- includes aging tests in accelerated processes. This at
tions are analyzed this way as well (Fig. 7). By now, the use least gives some insight as to whether the connector is in
prin­ciple suitable and reliably able to function long-time
in its task in the power grid. On-site testing, however, aims
to predict the residual service life of connectors already in
use. A look back onto recent years brings up another ques-
tion in this context: Are there any reliable methods for
this? The sixth and last section with a focus on type testing
and on-site testing will provide the answers.

Figure 7: The FEM simulation on the left

shows the forces and tensions at work in a
SICON bolted connector. The FEM analysis
confirms the mode of operation of its step-
less shear system: The first free thread turn
of the SICON bolt that protrudes from the
thread of the connector body is also the
area with the highest mechanical load. Ergo:
This is the place where the stepless bolt
shears off automatically when the optimal
contact force is achieved – even without
predetermined breaking points.

22 Focus on Contact
 Detail info 3:
The SICON bolt principle
1. The SICON bolt consists of a threaded pin, a threaded
sleeve with inner and outer threads as well as a friction
disk at the end of the bolt. Thanks to the stepless design of
the bolt, the contact force can be built without interruptions
by steps or notches in the bolt. When the SICON bolt is tight-
ened with a standard hexagon wrench, the threaded pin
turns in the threaded sleeve until it touches the bottom of
the sleeve.

2. From this point on, the threaded sleeve turns as well un-
1 2 til the friction disk at the end of the bolt touches the
conductor to be connected. The friction disk disengages
from the bottom of the bolt, and the bolt continues to turn
on the disk. While doing so, the disk remains motionless on
the conductor surface since the friction between the disk
and the conductor is significantly higher than the head fric-
tion between disk and bolt. Advantage: The head
friction at the conductor itself stops, and the torque of the
bolt is converted into contact force by the conductor near-
ly independently (Detail info 2). This force presses the con-
ductor against the opposing wall of the connector body,
which essentially creates the terminal connection. At the
same time, the friction disk protects the conductor from
damage caused by the contacting process.

3. The SICON bolt continues to turn until the breakaway

torque is reached. Then the interaction between tensile
stress and contact force comes into play. As a result from
the bolt being tightened, both forces are created as
3 4 two equally strong and opposing forces according to the
law of mechanics that states that force equals counter-
force. The contact force is exerted onto the conductor, while
the tensile force works in the opposite direction onto the
threaded sleeve of the SICON bolt. As soon as the tensile
stress associated with the optimal contact force is built
up, the breakaway torque is reached: the tensioned bolt is
axially stretched in a predefined area of the threaded
sleeve until it shears off.

4. The SICON connector is designed in a manner that the

highest point of the tensile stress is always wherever the
threaded sleeve protrudes from the thread of the connector
body. If viewed from the outside, the first free thread turn
thus also acts as the breakaway edge (Fig. 7). Ergo: The
SICON bolt always shears off below the surface of the ter-
minal body and does so without leaving protruding bolt parts
with sharp edges. This eliminates the previously
necessary step of filing as the risk of disruptive electrical
discharge due to metal shavings is no longer a problem.
Compared to conventional shear bolts, the SICON bolt also
shears off very gently and nearly without jolting.

Focus on Contact 23
Focus on Contact – Section 6 A typical form of on-site testing of above-ground connec-

How long
tions, or more specifically their contact quality, is thermal
imaging. This imaging method reveals infrared radiation
which serves as the basis for the interpretation of tem-

will the
perature distributions. Thermal imaging cameras today
are technically advanced and typically feature excellent
resolutions. The crucial issue is that these thermal images
must be analyzed in a professional manner. This requires

contact last?
basic knowledge about contact technology. One of the
most important principles for the analysis of thermal im-
ages states: The higher the resistance in a connection, the
shorter its service life is. The reason for this is that high
resistances are always associated with corresponding high
temperatures, which in turn promote natural contact ag-
ing (Section 3). Areas of the image that show higher tem-
Is a new connector always suitable for peratures could thus be an indicator of bad contact quality.
decades of use? How long is the residu-
Clear thermal image – complex analysis
al service life of connectors already in The measured temperatures, however, must always be seen
use? The first question can be answered in relation to additional factors: If a significant current flows
through the connection at the time the thermal image was
through type testing, whereas the sec- taken, an increased temperature might be absolutely justi-
ond one is the subject of on-site tests. fied, whereas it would have to be considered critical for
Section 6 addresses both of these ap- a lower current. Ambient temperatures can affect the evalu­
ation as well: A higher temperature in a connector that is also
proaches with a focus on aging effects heated by direct sunlight must be assessed differently
in contacts. than a connector evaluated in cold winter temperatures.
Another factor to take into consideration is the emission
factor which varies depending on the surface character-
istics of the connector: uncoated aluminum radiates differ-
ently than soiled or oxidized aluminum.

There is yet another principle of contact technology that

is also reflected in the standard requirements for type test-
ing according to IEC 61238-1 and IEC 61284: The connec-
tor must not be warmer than the conductor. The application
of this principle not only requires extensive image sections
but also knowledge about and experience with the system
in which the connection in question will be utilized, or
more specifically with the position of the connector in this
system (Fig. 1).

If this and other necessary information is assumed as a

given during interpretation, the thermal images taken af-
ter several years of operation can at least answer the fol-
lowing question: Is the connector inconspicuous or is it al-
ready in a critical state? However, this approach is unable
to provide reliable answers that go beyond this rough anal-
ysis of the status quo. A one-time snapshot neither allows
past developments to be reconstructed nor does it give
any insight into future trends. It still fails to provide use-
ful information on the number of years it takes for the qual-
Figure 1: An analysis of the thermal image shows that
the bolts are by far the hottest area in the tested terminal
set-up. This means that the current flows through the
bolts rather than the contacts – a precursor to contact
failure.

24 Focus on Contact
ity of contacts in operation to decline or the actual remain- tachment of the measuring instrument – an imposing appa-
ing service life of a connection. However, even though ratus that is transported to the connection on rollers via
negative findings regarding an urgent problem are relative, the overhead lines and remote control. Days can pass before
this approach does at least offer the opportunity to do this point is reached. First, the measuring instrument must
one thing: If a connection was clearly revealed to be crit- be lifted up. Then long insulating rods are used to position
ical, it can be replaced immediately. it on the overhead line, which is under operating voltage
during this procedure.
Saving systematically
A systematic use of thermal imaging in select critical ar- In light of this effort, this approach only seems feasible in
eas can not only result in higher grid and supply security very few special scenarios, for example when a previously
but also lead to cost benefits. A prerequisite in this ap- taken thermal image detects symptoms of a possible fail-
proach – in addition to professional interpretation of the im- ure in an important nodal point but is unable to prove it be-
ages – is that the thermal images are taken when a con- yond a doubt. Resistance measurement under operating
nection is commissioned and that the most important voltage can provide insight before making the much more
data, such as current and ambient temperature at the costly decision to replace the part, which would also involve
very least, are recorded in the process. This fingerprint is the overhead line being taken off the grid. Regardless of
then used as the baseline for subsequent thermal images which decision would be made in this situation or similar
taken at specific intervals, for example every five years, in- ones, for this type of resistance measurement, it is im-
cluding data collection and documentation. portant to keep in mind the following: It measures the
current value, which allows the current contact quality to
Just this fingerprint alone can provide valuable insights. If, be evaluated, if measured and interpreted correctly, but it
for example, the bolts were not tightened enough during does not provide information about previous or future de-
initial installation of a bolted connector, the image would velopments.
show this flaw. The comparison of current thermal images
and data with older ones (Fig. 2) could indicate trends that
would allow for foresight and thus cost-effectiveness in
network maintenance. For example, if transformers or in-
sulators are scheduled for re­placement, the required
turn-off time could be optimally utilized by simultane-
ously replacing any connections in the vicinity that show a
clear negative trend.

Exact resistance? Big effort!

While the temperature factor in thermal imaging only ap-
proximates the physical resistance value, a number that
plays a central role in contact quality, resistance meas-
urement, which is also commonly used, calculates the value
directly via voltage and current and can therefore be con-
sidered more accurate. Different methods are used in
this approach:

Resistance measurement under operating voltage is only

performed on overhead lines. Since the on-site measure-
ment of the operating current is associated with significant
effort, the network control station generally reports the
current operating current to the testing team on site via
radio. Even if the probability is low, this constellation still
poses the risk of inaccuracies. While the measurement only
takes approximately 20 seconds, one cannot eliminate the
possibility of grid capacities fluctuating during this time,
Figure 2: A comparison of the two infrared images clearly shows
which would automatically change the operating current the difference between a critical contact (above) and a new con-
during measurement. By far the bigger challenge is the at- tact (below).

Focus on Contact 25
High operating current – low measuring current This method does not detect the contact force itself but
One of the situations in which resistance measurement is instead attempts to determine it in directly via the meas-
used without operating voltage is if there are recurring urement of the auxiliary quantity residual torque. The pop-
failures and reconstruction of a larger grid section is be- ularity of this method lies in its simplicity: The measuring
ing considered. A used connector will serve as a specimen. instrument used here is a simple torque wrench preset to
This connector was removed from the grid along with 2 to 3 the target torque, which is adjusted to the bolt in the con-
m of conductor on both ends of the connector. It is then nector, which generates the contact force (Section 4). The
typi­cally examined in the lab, though in rare cases also on wrench is placed on the bolt and then tightened. More
site, under direct current. For this purpose, there is a large often than not, the wrench clicks exactly when the target
selection of ohmmeters on the market which usually work torque is reached. This often leads to the conclusion that
with measuring currents between 5 and 500 mA. the initially exerted contact force is still present and that
the contact is functional. However, this assumption is of-
However, these low measuring currents are proven not to ten wrong.
be suitable for the assessment of heavy current contacts,
which are exposed to 500 to 1000 A. If necessary, a small The explanation lies in the word “torque”: The generally
current can find its way even without noticeable resistance valid relationship between torque and force assumes a
via very few contact points, even if the majority of the contact movement of the bolt. However, after many years in use, the
is actually unusable. Therefore the direct measuring cur- bolt mechanism stiffens due to soiling, mechanical damage
rent must be at least 50 to 100 A and be able to be realized or corrosion – a completely normal process not to be con-
at a reasonable expense. fused with the unrelated permanent elasticity of the con-
nector system. It is in line with the universal standard for
The principle that the best measuring technology is use- connectors, which is “connect it, switch it on and forget
less without professional analysis of the measured values about it.” In regards to bolts this means that their mobility
applies here as well. Comparing the connector resistance is not a requirement for permanent contact quality beyond
to the resistance behavior of the uncut conductor is a good the moment when the initial contact is created. A look at
strategy here. For this purpose, the relationship of the torque measurement reveals: If there is no motion, then
connector resistance to the resistance of a conductor the relationship between torque and levered force and the
piece the same length as the connector is determined. clicking of the torque wrench are of no significance. From
According to IEC 61238-1, this value is called resistance a physical point of view, this relationship can only gain im-
factor. The closer this value is to the ideal ratio of 1 to 1, the portance again if the retarding static friction is overcome.
better the contact quality is (compare subsequent expla- Theoretically, this could be achieved with a significantly
nations regarding resistance calculations in type testing higher torque. However, how should this be adjusted when
according to IEC 61238-1). considering that the static friction varies from one bolt
to the next?
Click without force
Another typical form of on-site testing is to gage the contact Furthermore, if the torque is too high, the bolt may suffer
quality of bolted connectors by the remaining contact force. damage. Even if the bolt could be moved, there are other
Even though the contact force is not the only deciding factor, factors that affect the relationship of torque and force,
it is a key component of contact quality, which makes it such as the initial bolt greasing. These factors can neither
suitable as a test indicator. Keep in mind: The lower the be reproduced in on-site testing nor calculated in a man-
contact force, the higher the resistance, which accelerates ner that allows for reliable conclusions about the residu-
natural aging (Section 3). al contact force to be drawn from the torque alone. Re-
gardless of which approach is taken in this process, the
conclusion is always the same: Torque measurement is
not suitable for assessing contact quality.

26 Focus on Contact
On-site testing? With reservations. low and medium voltage, the application of this standard
Ergo: Aside from the fact that torque measurement per se is limited. However, there are users that have all of their
is unsuitable, the on-site tests shown here have both connectors tested based on this standard. Though there
strengths and weaknesses. If users are aware of them, they are special test standards for HV connectors, none of them
can weigh them with respect to measuring methods, room apply the same high level of strictness to the requirements
for interpretation and effort involved. While doing so, for the aging resistance of cable connectors.
it is always important to keep in mind: Neither method can
determine the remaining service life of a connector in use In the test according to IEC 61238-1 (see Fig. 3 for test
accurately. This is why it is even more important that only set-up), the aging behavior is simulated in accelerated
those products are used that have generally proven their processes by means of 1,000 heating cycles or load cycles.
suitability for long-term use. Though this may be standard The load exerted in these tests is equivalent to typical oper-
in Europe, it is not necessarily a given in the rest of the world. ating loads over 40 years or longer.

Hardness test according to IEC 61238-1 This approach is based on the Arrhenius equation, which
Even though the required contact service life of several states – put briefly – that high absolute temperatures
decades does not allow for real-time tests, cable connectors shorten the service life of contacts. Contact aging is fur-
can already prove their suitability even before commis- ther accelerated by temperature fluctuations caused by
sioning by passing a type test according to IEC 61238-1. load changes as they trigger flow and settling processes
Due to the responsibilities of the standards boards to (Section 3).

Figure 3: Test circuit set-up in aging test according to IEC 61238-1

with six specimens (P), reference conductor (RL) and measuring points (M).

Focus on Contact 27
Both a high absolute temperature and temperature fluc- Type testing depending on
tuations are simulated through heat cycle sequences (Fig. 4). type of terminal and application
Meanwhile the temperatures of the specimens and the The aging test of overhead lines and switchgear terminals
reference conductor are measured regularly. According to based on temperature fluctuations is performed in accord-
IEC 61238-1, connector loads must not exceed those of the ance with IEC 61284. Since these terminals are exposed
reference conductor under current. Connector resistances to lower thermal loads due to their bare design and areas
are determined at the same time. of application (Section 5), their test parameters have been
adjusted accordingly: Instead of 1000 heating cycles, only
Something that is currently unique in the test according to 500 are required, while the temperature of the reference
IEC 61238-1 is that the transverse conductivity of the con- conductor must be 70 K above the ambient temperature.
nected conductors is considered as well. This reflects how In principle, however, the test methods and assessment
well the connector can contact the individual wires in the criteria of IEC 61284 are identical with IEC 61238-1, from
conductor in all conductor positions, thus ensuring that they which they were derived.
have a high level of transverse conductivity. They key factor
in assessing connector resistances is resistance factor k. The results of testing according to IEC 61284 confirm a num-
This factor is cal­culated from the ratio of reference conduc- ber of basic principles of contact technology, including this
tor resistance to contact resistance. According to the one: If an even current flows through a connector which
standard, this value must remain consistent and below 2 for was designed in line with the required principles and in-
all specimens (Fig. 5). stalled correctly, the temperature of the connector is always
lower than that of the reference conductor. This disproves
the widespread misconception that connectors are always
hotspots in the network (Fig. 6).
Temperature [°C]

Current [A]

Current
Temperature of reference conductor
Temperature of connector

Time [h]

Figure 4: Temperature and current curves during a heating cycle in an aging test according to IEC 61238-1:
A heating cycle consists of three phases: In the first phase, the reference conductor is heated to
120 °C. Then the temperature is held at a consistent level for over 30 minutes, and finally the
conductor is cooled down to room temperature again. For the test, a total of 1000 of such cycles are
performed consecutively. The heating cycle featured here shows the normal temperature behavior
of a connector: While under current, its temperature remains below that of the reference conductor.

28 Focus on Contact
 Resistance factor k in six specimens
during an aging test acc. to IEC 61238-1

Resistance factor k

Number of heating cycles

Figure 5: The resistance curves of the six specimens shown here illustrate that their resistance
factors remain consistent and below as required by IEC 61238-1, and they do so far beyond the
1000th heating cycle.

Comparison of temperature curves

of conductors and connectors

Conductor Connector Conductor

Temperature [°C]

Length of test section [cm]

Figure 6: The temperature curves of two connectors and their conductors as recorded in a type test
according to IEC 61284 show: If the connector has been designed in line with the required principles
and installed correctly, the connector temperature is below that of the conductor, assuming that the
flow of current is even. The reason: The parallel connection of conductor cable and connector sleeve
ensures that both the conductor and the connector conduct the electricity in the connector area, which
allows the flow of current to utilize twice the cross-section. This in turn lowers the resistance.
In addition, the overall bigger surface can emit more heat this way.

Focus on Contact 29
If the aging tests according to both standards are to provide
reproducible results, additional age-accelerating factors
at play in real usage scenarios must be excluded. Oxygen,
moisture and salt penetrating the contact area, for exam-
ple, can promote aging (Sections 3 and 4). For this reason
additional type testing according to IEC 60068-2-52
(Fig. 7 and 8), geared toward the intended area of appli-
cation, is recommended for outdoor connectors.

Conclusion: Safety through specification

The highest possible level of safety can be achieved if con-
nector specifications are worded in accordance with these
empirical values. Connectors should therefore meet at
least the following three design criteria: Defined contact
points, sufficient elasticity and contact protection grease
(Sections 2 to 4). In addition, connectors should pass type
testing in accordance with the above mentioned standards.
Fortunately, users are not alone in requesting these
standards. A number of manufacturers develop and pro-
duce all of their products – not only large components for
high voltage applications but also smaller terminals for
medium and low voltage contacts – in line with standards
and state of the art. This effort pays off. A comparison of
investment costs and overall costs over the entire life cycle
shows (Fig. 1): If you focus on quality, you end up saving not
only effort but also money.

Figure 8: Conductors and connectors after

ten weeks of salt resistance testing according
to IEC 60068-2-52

30 Focus on Contact
Figure 7: Salt resistance test according to
IEC 60068-2-52: The specimens (before cyclic salt
spray) are positioned in a test chamber with a volume
of 3 m³ and then sprayed with a salt water solution (5%
NaCl). One test cycle lasts 24 hours (2 h of spraying and
22 h of drying). Meanwhile the specimens are subject to
cyclic alternating current loads (I on = 220 A / for 1 h,
Ioff = 0 A / for 2 h).

Focus on Contact 31
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