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 Abstract Algebra
An Interactive Approach

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William Paulsen
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 TEXTBOOKS in MATHEMATICS

Abstract Algebra
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William Paulsen
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Contents

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xi

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xv

About the Author xvii

Symbol Description xix

R
Mathematica vs. GAP xxiii

1 Understanding the Group Concept 1

1.1 Introduction to Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Prime Factorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 The Definition of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Problems for Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 The Structure within a Group 27

2.1 Generators of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Defining Finite Groups in Mathematica and GAP . . . . . . 31
2.3 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Problems for Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3 Patterns within the Cosets of Groups 53

3.1 Left and Right Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 How to Write a Secret Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4 Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Problems for Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4 Mappings between Groups 79

4.1 Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.3 The Three Isomorphism Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

v
vi Contents

Problems for Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

5 Permutation Groups 107

5.1 Symmetric Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Cayley’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.4 Numbering the Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Problems for Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

6 Building Larger Groups from Smaller Groups 135

6.1 The Direct Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups . . . . 141
6.3 Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4 Semi-Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Problems for Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

7 The Search for Normal Subgroups 175

7.1 The Center of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2 The Normalizer and Normal Closure Subgroups . . . . . . . 179
7.3 Conjugacy Classes and Simple Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.4 The Class Equation and Sylow’s Theorems . . . . . . . . . . 190
Problems for Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8 Solvable and Insoluble Groups 209

8.1 Subnormal Series and the Jordan-Hölder Theorem . . . . . . 209
8.2 Derived Group Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.3 Polycyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.4 Solving the PyraminxTM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Problems for Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

9 Introduction to Rings 245

9.1 Groups with an Additional Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.2 The Definition of a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.3 Entering Finite Rings into GAP and Mathematica . . . . . . 256
9.4 Some Properties of Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Problems for Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

10 The Structure within Rings 273

10.1 Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.2 Quotient Rings and Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.3 Ring Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
10.4 Homomorphisms and Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Problems for Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
 Contents vii

11 Integral Domains and Fields 309

11.1 Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
11.2 The Field of Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
11.3 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
11.4 Ordered Commutative Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Problems for Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

12 Unique Factorization 351

12.1 Factorization of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12.2 Unique Factorization Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
12.3 Principal Ideal Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
12.4 Euclidean Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Problems for Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

13 Finite Division Rings 391

13.1 Entering Finite Fields in Mathematica or GAP . . . . . . . . 391
13.2 Properties of Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
13.3 Cyclotomic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
13.4 Finite Skew Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Problems for Chapter 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

14 The Theory of Fields 429

14.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
14.2 Extension Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
14.3 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Problems for Chapter 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

15 Galois Theory 459

15.1 The Galois Group of an Extension Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
15.2 The Galois Group of a Polynomial in Q . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
15.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . 479
15.4 Solutions of Polynomial Equations Using Radicals . . . . . . 486
Problems for Chapter 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 497

Bibliography 517

Index 519
List of Figures

1.1 Terry’s animated dance steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Circle graphs for modulo 10 operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Visualizing arrangements of three books . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2 Rotations of the octahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 PyraminxTM puzzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.1 Circle graphs revealing cosets of Terry’s group . . . . . . . . . 54

∗
3.2 Circle graph for squaring in Z33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
∗
3.3 Circle graph for cubing in Z33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 Circle graph for cubing modulo 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.1 Diagram of a typical homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.2 Commuting diagram for first isomorphism theorem . . . . . . 95
4.3 Commuting diagram for second isomorphism theorem . . . . 98
4.4 Commuting diagram for third isomorphism theorem . . . . . 102

5.1 Circle graph for a typical permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

5.2 Circle graph of a typical cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Circle graphs for multiplying elements of Q by i . . . . . . . . 121
5.4 Multiplying cosets of D4 by elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6.1 Circle graph for multiplying by 3 in Z8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

6.2 Proof without words that Aut(Q) ≈ S4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.1 Example of two subnormal series of different lengths . . . . . 213

8.2 Diagram showing the strategy of the refinement theorem . . . 213
8.3 PyraminxTM without corners gone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.4 PyraminxTM with numbered faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

9.1 Plot depicting the rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

9.2 Sample path going through every rational . . . . . . . . . . . 247

10.1 Commuting diagram for first ring isomorphism theorem . . . 298

11.1 Polar coordinates for a complex number . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

11.2 The eight roots of unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

ix
x List of Figures

12.1 Sample long division problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

15.1 Automorphisms of splitting field for x4 − 2x3 + x2 + 1 . . . . 466

15.2 Automorphisms of splitting field for x5 − 5x + 12 . . . . . . . 472
15.3 Automorphisms for x8 − 24x6 + 144x4 − 288x2 + 144 . . . . . 474
15.4 Subfield diagram for splitting field of x3 − 2 . . . . . . . . . . 481
15.5 Subgroup diagram for Galois group of x3 − 2 . . . . . . . . . 482
List of Tables

1.1 Terry the triangle’s dance steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Multiplication table for Terry’s dance steps . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Multiplication modulo 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Multiplication modulo 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Euler’s totient function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.2 Z5 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Multiplication table for S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.1 Standard alpha-numeric code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

∗
4.1 Multiplication table for Z24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2 Multiplication table for D4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Multiplication table for Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Number of groups of order n for composite n . . . . . . . . . 85

5.1 Table of factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.2 Two ways to assign permutations to the elements of Q . . . . 122
5.3 Multiplication table for Q using integer representation . . . . 129

7.1 Mathematica’s multiplication table for Q . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

8.1 Multiplication table for the mystery group A . . . . . . . . . 227

8.2 Orders of the elements for A6 n(Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z2 × Z2 ) . . 236
8.3 Flipping edges of the PyraminxTM into position . . . . . . . . 238
8.4 Rotating corners of the PyraminxTM into position . . . . . . 238
8.5 Multiplication table for the mystery group B . . . . . . . . . 240
8.6 Multiplication table for the mystery group C . . . . . . . . . 241
8.7 Multiplication table for the mystery group D . . . . . . . . . 241

9.1 Multiplication table for the ring Z6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

9.2 Checklist to show which groups have which properties . . . . 253
9.3 Addition table for a particular ring R . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
9.4 Multiplication table for a particular ring R . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.5 T4 , one of the smallest non-commutative rings . . . . . . . . . 268
9.6 T8 , the smallest non-commutative ring with an identity . . . 268
9.7 Examples for each of the 11 possible types of ring . . . . . . . 268

xi
xii List of Tables

10.1 Addition and multiplication tables for a particular subring . . 274

10.2 Addition table for cosets of the subring . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
10.3 Multiplication table for the cosets of the subring . . . . . . . 280
10.4 Tables for a ring of order 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.5 Multiplication for the ring 2Z20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10.6 Number of rings of order n for n < 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

11.1 Addition table for the field Z(9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

11.2 Multiplication table for the field Z(9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

13.1 Tables for a field of order 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Preface

This textbook introduces a new approach to teaching an introductory course

in abstract algebra. This text can be used for either an undergraduate level
course, or a graduate level sequence. The undergraduate students would only
cover the the basic material on groups and rings given in chapters 1–4 and 9–
12. A graduate level sequence can be implemented by covering group theory in
one semester (chapters 1–8), and covering rings and fields the second semester
(chapters 9–15). Alternatively, one semester could cover part of the group
theory chapters and part of ring theory, while the second semester covers the
remainder of the book.
This text covers many graduate level topics that are not in most standard
introductory abstract algebra courses. Some examples are semi-direct prod-
R
ucts (section 6.4), polycyclic groups (section 8.3), solving Rubik’s Cube -like
puzzles (section 8.4), and Wedderburn’s theorem (section 13.4). There are
also some problem sequences that allow students to explore interesting topics
in depth. For example, one sequence of problems outlines Fermat’s two square
theorem, while another finds a principal ideal domain that is not an Euclidean
domain. Hopefully, these extra tidbits of information will satisfy the curiosity
of the more advanced students.
What makes this book unique is the incorporation of technology into an
R
abstract algebra course. Either Mathematica or GAP (Groups, Algorithms,
and Programming) can be used to give the students a hands-on experience
to groups and rings. It is recommended to use at least one of these in the
classroom. (GAP is totally free. See the section “Mathematica vs. GAP” for
more information about both of these programs.) Every chapter includes sev-
eral interactive problems that have the students use these programs to explore
groups and rings. By doing these experiments, students can get a better grasp
of the topic. However, there are plenty of non-interactive problems as well,
so the instructor can choose not to force students into using these programs.
The exception to this is in section 3.2, since the RSA encryption requires a
computer program of some kind.
But in spite of the additional technology, this text is not short on rigor.
There are still all of the classical proofs, although some of the harder proofs
can be shortened with the added technology. For example, Abel’s theorem
is much easier to prove if we first assume that the 60-element group A5 is
simple, which Mathematica or GAP can verify in the classroom in less than a
second. In fact, the added technology allows students to study larger groups,
such as some of the Chevalley groups.

xiii
xiv Preface

This text has many tools that will aid the students. There is a symbols ta-
ble, so if a student sees an unfamiliar symbol, he can look up the description
in this table, and see where this symbol is first defined. The answers to the
odd-numbered problems are in the back, although the proofs are abbreviated.
There is an extensive index that not only lists the relevant pages for a partic-
ular terminology, but also highlights the page where the term is first defined.
A list of tables and figures allows students to find a multiplication table for a
particular group or ring.
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