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Microbial Production of Food
Ingredients and Additives
Page left intentionally blank
Microbial Production of Food
Ingredients and Additives
Handbook of Food Bioengineering,
Volume 5

Edited by

Alina Maria Holban

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechani-
cal, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permis-
sions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright
Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they
should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-811520-6

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at

https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

Acquisition Editor: Nina Bandeira
Editorial Project Manager: Jaclyn Truesdell
Production Project Manager: Caroline Johnson
Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by Thomson Digital

Contents

List of Contributors............................................................................................ xiii

Foreword............................................................................................................xv
Series Preface....................................................................................................xvii
Preface for Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives...........xxi
Chapter 1: Microbial Production of Added-Value Ingredients: State of the Art.............1
Danielle B. Lopes, José V. Madeira Júnior, Lívia V. de Castro Reis,
Karina M. Macena Leão, Gabriela Alves Macedo
1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
2 Microbial Production of Ingredients........................................................................ 2
2.1 Flavors.....................................................................................................................3
2.2 Nutraceuticals........................................................................................................10
3 Enzymatic Production of Ingredients..................................................................... 15
3.1 Esters.....................................................................................................................16
3.2 Flavors...................................................................................................................20
4 Conclusions............................................................................................................ 22
References.................................................................................................................. 22
Chapter 2: Phytase as a Diet Ingredient: From Microbial Production
to Its Applications in Food and Feed Industry.........................................33
Hasan B. Coban, Ali Demirci
1 Phytate.................................................................................................................... 33
2 Phytase................................................................................................................... 36
2.1 Applications of Phytases and Their Importance....................................................36
2.2 Microbial Phytase Production...............................................................................39
3 Conclusions............................................................................................................ 48
References.................................................................................................................. 50
Chapter 3: Current Trends and Future Prospective of Prebiotics
as Therapeutic Food...........................................................................57
Prasandeep Biswal, Abhisek Pal, Alok P. Das
1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 57
2 The Concept of Prebiotics as Therapeutic Food.................................................... 59
3 Classification of Prebiotics.................................................................................... 61

v
Contents

4 The Mechanism of Prebiotics.............................................................................. 62

4.1 Inhibition of Histone Deacetylases.....................................................................63
4.2 Activation of G-Protein Coupled Receptors.......................................................64
5 Current Trends and Their Applications................................................................ 65
5.1 Role of Prebiotics as Food Stabilizers................................................................65
5.2 Role of Prebiotics in Gut Health, Colitis, and Constipation...............................66
5.3 Role of Prebiotics as Anticancer Agents and Immune Modulators������������������� 67
5.4 Role of Prebiotics in CVD, Cholesterol Deterioration, and Obesity����������������� 68
5.5 Impact of Prebiotics on Vaginal and Skin Ecosystems.......................................68
5.6 Bacteriocin Production........................................................................................69
5.7 Type II Diabetes..................................................................................................69
5.8 Prebiotics in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease..................................................70
6 Cutting-Edge Research and Production Methods of Prebiotics........................... 71
6.1 Prebiotic Production Techniques and Their Potential.........................................71
6.2 Prebiotics from Food Wastes and Their Potential Effects...................................72
6.3 Prebiotic Potential as a Food Supplement...........................................................73
7 Novel Sources of Prebiotics................................................................................. 74
8 Safety Consideration of Prebiotics...................................................................... 76
9 Future Perspectives of Prebiotic Research........................................................... 76
10 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 78
References.................................................................................................................. 79

Chapter 4: Food Ingredients Synthesized by Lactic Acid Bacteria..............................89

Kenza Zarour, Nuria Vieco, Adrian Pérez-Ramos, Montserrat Nácher-Vázquez,
Mª Luz Mohedano, Paloma López
1 Introduction............................................................................................................ 89
2 Exopolysaccharides Produced by LAB................................................................. 90
2.1 EPS in Dairy Products...........................................................................................92
2.2 EPS in Cereal-Based Products..............................................................................94
3 Aroma Compounds Produced by LAB.................................................................. 96
3.1 C4 Aroma Compounds..........................................................................................96
3.2 Proteolysis and Catabolism of Amino Acids.........................................................99
3.3 Lipolysis..............................................................................................................101
4 Polyols................................................................................................................. 102
4.1 Mannitol..............................................................................................................102
4.2 Sorbitol................................................................................................................105
5 Antimicrobial Compounds................................................................................... 107
5.1 Bacteriocins From LAB......................................................................................108
5.2 Applications of the LAB Bacteriocins in the Food Industry...............................111
6 Vitamin Production by LAB................................................................................ 112
6.1 Riboflavin............................................................................................................113
6.2 Folate...................................................................................................................115
7 Conclusions and Perspectives.............................................................................. 116
References................................................................................................................ 117

vi
 Contents

Chapter 5: Microbial Diversity and Flavor Quality of Fermented Beverages.............125

Francisco J. de la Torre-González, José A. Narváez-Zapata,
Claudia P. Larralde-Corona
1 Fermented Beverages........................................................................................... 125
1.1 Fermented Beverages Obtained From Fruits and Stalks.....................................126
1.2 Fermented Beverages Obtained From Cereals....................................................128
2 Microorganisms Involved in Fermented Beverages Production.......................... 128
3 Volatile Metabolites and Quality of Fermented Beverages.................................. 133
4 Conclusions and Perspectives.............................................................................. 150
References................................................................................................................ 151
Chapter 6: Prebiotic and Synbiotic Foods.............................................................155
Pawel Glibowski, Katarzyna Skrzypczak
1 Characterization of Prebiotics.............................................................................. 155
1.1 Definition of Prebiotic.........................................................................................155
1.2 Fructans...............................................................................................................156
1.3 Galactooligosaccharides......................................................................................158
1.4 Soy Oligosaccharides..........................................................................................159
1.5 Xylooligosaccharides..........................................................................................159
1.6 Pyrodextrins........................................................................................................159
1.7 Lactulose.............................................................................................................160
1.8 Isomaltooligosaccharides....................................................................................161
2 Probiotics............................................................................................................. 161
2.1 The Conception of Probiotic Microorganisms
and Probiotic Products��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
2.2 Potential Mechanisms of Action and Health Effects...........................................167
2.3 Challenges and Future Prospective.....................................................................168
3 Application of Prebiotics and Probiotics in Food Products................................. 169
3.1 Prebiotic Food With Pyrodextrins.......................................................................169
3.2 Prebiotic and Synbiotic Food With Isomaltooligosaccharides............................169
3.3 Prebiotic and Synbiotic Food With Lactulose.....................................................171
3.4 Xylooligosaccharides in Food.............................................................................171
3.5 Symbiotic Food With Soy Oligosaccharides.......................................................172
3.6 Prebiotic and Synbiotic Food With Galactooligosaccharide...............................173
3.7 Fructans in Food Products...................................................................................174
3.8 Mixtures of Prebiotics With Probiotics...............................................................179
4 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 180
References................................................................................................................ 180
Chapter 7: Production, Use, and Prospects of Microbial Food Colorants.................189
Uche O. Ogbodo, Jerry O. Ugwuanyi
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 189
2 History of the Use of Food Colorants.................................................................. 190

vii
Contents

3 Sources of Microbial Food Colorants................................................................ 190

4 Qualities of Good-Food Colorants..................................................................... 191
5 Assay of Microbial Colorants............................................................................ 192
6 Physiological Basis for Colorant Production in Microorganisms...................... 193
7 Mechanisms of Colorant Production in Microorganisms.................................. 195
8 Genetic and Metabolic Engineering of Colorant Production
in Microorganisms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������198
9 Factors Affecting Growth and Colorant Production
in Microorganisms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������201
9.1 Carbon Source...................................................................................................201
9.2 Nitrogen Source................................................................................................203
9.3 pH......................................................................................................................203
9.4 Temperature.......................................................................................................204
9.5 Aeration.............................................................................................................204
9.6 Incubation Time................................................................................................205
9.7 Light..................................................................................................................205
10 Production and Downstream Processes............................................................. 206
10.1 Solid State Production and Use of Monascus Pigment...................................207
10.2 Downstream Processing (DSP) of Microbial Food Colorants........................207
11 Applications of Microbial Colorants.................................................................. 209
11.1 Health and Therapeutics..................................................................................209
11.2 Food Quality Control......................................................................................209
11.3 Taxonomic Marker..........................................................................................210
11.4 Nutrition Supplementation..............................................................................210
12 Market Trends in Microbial Food Colorants..................................................... 210
13 Challenges and Limitations to Microbial Food Colorant Exploitation.............. 211
14 Prospects and Challenges................................................................................... 211
15 Conclusions........................................................................................................ 212
References................................................................................................................ 213

Chapter 8: Biopolymer Produced by the Lactic Acid Bacteria: Production

and Practical Application..................................................................217
Zaheer Ahmed, Asif Ahmad
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 217
2 Background of Lactic Acid Polysaccharides....................................................... 218
3 Production, Isolation, and Purification of EPS.................................................... 220
4 Characterization of EPS....................................................................................... 222
4.1 EPS Structure......................................................................................................222
4.2 Homopolysaccharides.........................................................................................223
4.3 Heteropolysaccharides........................................................................................226
5 Application of EPS............................................................................................... 231
5.1 Health Applications.............................................................................................233
5.2 Food Applications...............................................................................................237
6 Future Prospects................................................................................................... 248
References................................................................................................................ 248
viii
 Contents

Chapter 9: Microbial Production of Low-Calorie Sugars........................................259

Falguni Patra, Ami Patel, Nihir Shah
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 259
2 Erythritol.............................................................................................................. 260
2.1 Microbial Production of Erythritol......................................................................261
3 Mannitol............................................................................................................... 265
3.1 Microbial Production of Mannitol......................................................................266
3.2 Mannitol Production by Recombinant Microorganisms.....................................269
4 Xylitol.................................................................................................................. 271
4.1 Microbial Production..........................................................................................271
4.2 Xylitol Production by Recombinant Microorganisms........................................275
5 Tagatose............................................................................................................... 277
5.1 Biological Production of Tagatose......................................................................278
6 Psicose.................................................................................................................. 279
6.1 Biological Production of Psicose........................................................................280
7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 281
References................................................................................................................ 281
Chapter 10: Microbial Production of Itaconic Acid................................................291
Juliana C. da Cruz, Eliana F. Camporese Sérvulo, Aline M. de Castro
1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 291
2 Definition and Properties of Itaconic Acid........................................................ 293
3 Historical View................................................................................................... 294
4 Chemical Route for Itaconic Acid Production................................................... 295
5 Itaconic Acid Production Through Bioprocesses............................................... 296
6 Biosynthesis of Itaconic Acid............................................................................ 299
7 Food Industry Application................................................................................. 301
8 Other Industrial Applications............................................................................. 302
9 Industrial Production and Market of Itaconic Acid........................................... 304
10 Conclusions........................................................................................................ 308
References................................................................................................................ 309
Chapter 11: Microbial Production of Secondary Metabolites as Food Ingredients.....317
Padmavathi Tallapragada, Rashmi Dikshit
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 317
2 Bioactive Compounds From Microbial Sources.................................................. 317
2.1 Monascus Pigments.............................................................................................318
2.2 γ-Aminobutyric Acid...........................................................................................320
2.3 Lovastatin............................................................................................................322
2.4 Citrinin................................................................................................................324
3 Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Microbial Secondary Metabolites.......... 325
3.1 Antioxidant Activity............................................................................................325
3.2 Antibacterial Activity..........................................................................................327
4 Antibiotic Production From Microorganisms...................................................... 328
5 Anticancer Agents From Microorganisms........................................................... 329
ix
Contents

6 Organic Acids From Microorganisms................................................................ 332

7 Bacteriocins....................................................................................................... 334
8 Hydrolytic Enzymes From Microbial Sources.................................................. 335
8.1 Amylase Production..........................................................................................335
8.2 β-Glucosidase....................................................................................................336
8.3 Glucoamylases..................................................................................................336
9 Agrowaste Residues for Secondary Metabolite Production............................... 337
10 Strategies to Enhance the Bioproduct................................................................ 337
11 Statistical Approach to Optimize Microbial Bioproducts.................................. 338
12 Future Aspects.................................................................................................... 341
References................................................................................................................ 342
Chapter 12: Microbial Polysaccharides as Food Ingredients...................................347
Onur Kırtel, Gülben Avşar, Burak Adnan Erkorkmaz, Ebru T. Öner
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 347
2 Levan.................................................................................................................... 349
2.1 Chemical Structure and General Properties of Levan.........................................349
2.2 Production Strategies for Levan..........................................................................350
2.3 Food Applications of Levan................................................................................353
3 Pullulan................................................................................................................ 353
3.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Pullulan...................................................353
3.2 Production Strategies for Pullulan.......................................................................354
3.3 Food Applications of Pullulan.............................................................................356
4 Xanthan Gum....................................................................................................... 357
4.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Xanthan...................................................357
4.2 Production of Xanthan........................................................................................358
4.3 Food Applications of Xanthan.............................................................................361
5 Curdlan................................................................................................................. 362
5.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Curdlan....................................................362
5.2 Production of Curdlan.........................................................................................362
5.3 Food Applications of Curdlan.............................................................................365
6 Gellan................................................................................................................... 365
6.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Gellan......................................................365
6.2 Production of Gellan...........................................................................................366
6.3 Food Applications of Gellan...............................................................................366
7 Chitosan............................................................................................................... 369
7.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Chitosan..................................................369
7.2 Production of Chitosan........................................................................................370
7.3 Food Applications of Chitosan............................................................................370
8 Scleroglucan......................................................................................................... 371
8.1 Chemical Structure and Properties of Scleroglucan............................................371
8.2 Production of Scleroglucan.................................................................................372
8.3 Scleroglucan in the Food Industry......................................................................372
9 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................ 373
References................................................................................................................ 374

x
 Contents

Chapter 13: Xanthan: Biotechnological Production and Applications.......................385

Louise C. Candido da Silva, Brenda N. Targino, Marianna M. Furtado,
Miriam A. de Oliveira Pinto, Mirian P. Rodarte, Humberto M. Hungaro
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 385
2 Structure and Properties....................................................................................... 386
3 Applications of Xanthan...................................................................................... 390
4 Biotechnological Production................................................................................ 392
4.1 Xanthomonas.......................................................................................................392
4.2 Biosynthesis........................................................................................................397
4.3 Factors Influencing Production...........................................................................400
4.4 Recovery of Xanthan...........................................................................................412
5 Industrial Production............................................................................................ 414
6 Prospects and Challenges..................................................................................... 415
References................................................................................................................ 416
Chapter 14: Designer Foods: Scope for Enrichment
With Microbe-Sourced Antioxidants.................................................423
Indira P. Sarethy, Sharadwata Pan
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 423
2 Global Market for Designer or Functional Food................................................. 426
2.1 The Worldwide Drift...........................................................................................426
2.2 Trends in the European Sector............................................................................428
2.3 Perspectives of New Markets..............................................................................428
3 Free Radicals and the Demand for Antioxidants................................................. 429
3.1 Free Radicals and Oxidative Stress.....................................................................429
3.2 Types of Antioxidants and Modes of Action.......................................................430
3.3 Antioxidants and Their Demands........................................................................430
3.4 Novel Functional Foods, Active Ingredients, and Health Prerogatives...............432
4 Sources of Nonmicrobial Antioxidants................................................................ 432
4.1 Synthetic Versus Natural: Perpetual Dilemma....................................................432
4.2 Plant Protein-Based Natural Antioxidants..........................................................433
4.3 Animal Protein-Based Natural Antioxidants.......................................................433
5 Microbe-Derived Antioxidants............................................................................ 434
6 Techniques to Deliver Antioxidants in Foods...................................................... 437
7 Regulatory Issues................................................................................................. 440
8 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 443
References................................................................................................................ 443

Chapter 15: Monitoring of Microbial Activity in Real-Time....................................451

Jan Iciek, Ilona Błaszczyk, Magdalena Molska
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 451
2 Methods in Food Diagnostics.............................................................................. 452
2.1 Classical Culture Methods..................................................................................452
2.2 Chromogenic and Fluorogenic Isolation Media..................................................453

xi
Contents

2.3 Modified Culture Methods................................................................................453

2.4 Methods Based on Impedance..........................................................................454
2.5 Bioluminescent Measurement of ATP..............................................................456
2.6 Cytometry Analysis...........................................................................................457
2.7 Direct Epifluorescent Filter Technique (DEFT)................................................458
2.8 Molecular Methods...........................................................................................459
2.9 Immunological Tests.........................................................................................462
2.10 Biosensors.........................................................................................................464
2.11 The Method of Redox Potential Measurements................................................465
2.12 Online Measurements........................................................................................467
3 Conclusions.......................................................................................................... 472
References................................................................................................................ 472

Index...............................................................................................................477

xii
List of Contributors
Asif Ahmad Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Zaheer Ahmed Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Gabriela Alves Macedo University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Gülben Avşar Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Ilona Błaszczyk Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Lodz,
Poland
Prasandeep Biswal Siksha O Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Eliana F. Camporese Sérvulo Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Louise C. Candido da Silva Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Hasan B. Coban The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
Juliana C. da Cruz Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Alok P. Das Tripura University (A Central University), Suryamaninagar, Tripura, India
Aline M. de Castro Research and Development Center, Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Lívia V. de Castro Reis University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Francisco J. de la Torre-González National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic
Biotechnology (Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG),
Reynosa, Tamaulipas, Mexico
Miriam A. de Oliveira Pinto Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Ali Demirci The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
Rashmi Dikshit Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Burak Adnan Erkorkmaz Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Marianna M. Furtado University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Pawel Glibowski University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Humberto M. Hungaro Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Jan Iciek Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis, Lodz, Poland
Onur Kırtel Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Claudia P. Larralde-Corona National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic Biotechnology
(Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG), Reynosa,
Tamaulipas, Mexico
Danielle B. Lopes University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
Paloma López Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research,
Madrid, Spain
Karina M. Macena Leão University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil
José V. Madeira Júnior University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas-SP, São Paulo, Brazil

xiii
List of Contributors

Mª Luz Mohedano Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research,
Madrid, Spain
Magdalena Molska Technical University of Lodz, Institute of Food Technology and Analysis,
Lodz, Poland
Montserrat Nácher-Vázquez Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific
Research, Madrid, Spain
José A. Narváez-Zapata National Polytechnic Institute—Centre for Genomic Biotechnology
(Instituto Politécnico Nacional—Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, IPN—CBG), Reynosa,
Tamaulipas, Mexico
Uche O. Ogbodo University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
Ebru T. Öner Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
Abhisek Pal Siksha O Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Sharadwata Pan Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ami Patel Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Falguni Patra Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana,
Gujarat, India
Adrian Pérez-Ramos Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research,
Madrid, Spain
Mirian P. Rodarte Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Indira P. Sarethy Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nihir Shah Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology (MIDFT), Mehsana, Gujarat, India
Katarzyna Skrzypczak University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Padmavathi Tallapragada Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Brenda N. Targino Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Jerry O. Ugwuanyi University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
Nuria Vieco Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid, Spain;
Polytech’Lille, University of Lille 1, France
Kenza Zarour Center for Biological Research, Higher Council for Scientific Research, Madrid,
Spain; University of Oran 1 Ahmed Ben Bella, Algeria

xiv
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