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Post-Harvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables

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 Chapter 9
Print ISBN: 978-81-970423-0-0, eBook ISBN: 978-81-970423-9-3

Post-Harvest Management of Fruits and

Vegetables

Sandeep Janghu a*, Vikas Kumar b and Ashok Kumar Yadav a

DOI: 10.9734/bpi/cpafs/v7/7984E
Peer-Review History:
This chapter was reviewed by following the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. This chapter was thoroughly checked to
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ABSTRACT

Fruit and vegetable harvest management must be done well in order to maximize
quality, reduce post-harvest losses, and increase shelf life. The reasons of post-
harvest losses, different post-harvest technologies, and treatments meant to
reduce losses and maintain the quality of harvested product. Physiological
changes, mechanical damage, incorrect handling and transportation, unfavorable
weather conditions, and pest infestations are some of the causes of post-harvest
losses. Many post-harvest technologies and treatments have been developed to
address these issues. These include the use of technologies to delay
senescence and decay, controlled atmosphere storage to control oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels, and pre-cooling techniques to lower temperature and slow
down physiological processes. Post-harvest procedures including washing,
sorting, grading, and waxing also aid in lowering microbial contamination and
extending shelf life. Additionally, environmentally friendly ways to maintain
freshness while minimizing the impact on the environment are provided by
sustainable packaging. Real-time monitoring of the supply chain for
environmental conditions and produce quality makes it possible to take prompt
action to reduce losses and improve storage conditions.

Keywords: Post-harvest; shelf life; quality; physiological changes; senescence;

sustainable packaging.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fruits and vegetables are the edible parts of plant. In fruits, it is mature ovary
inseparably connected as part in flowering plants. Whereas Vegetable, the edible
________________________________________________________________________
a
Department of Food Technology, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791112, Arunachal
Pradesh, India.
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004,
Punjab, India.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];
 Current Perspectives in Agriculture and Food Science Vol. 7
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product of a herbaceous plant-that is, a plant with a soft stem, as distinguished

from the edible nuts and fruits produced by plants with woody stems such as
shrubs and trees. Vegetables can be grouped according to the edible part of
each plant: leaves (lettuce), stalks (celery), roots (carrot), tubers (potato), bulbs
(onion), and flowers (broccoli). Fruits and vegetables are an important
supplement to the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins
and fiber required for maintaining health. Variety of these is as important as
quantity. These need to be eaten plenty every day for a healthy diet as no single
fruit or vegetable provides all of the nutrients.

A diet rich in fruits and vegetables can help in lowering blood pressure, reduction
in the risk of heart disease and stroke, to prevent some types of cancer, lowering
risk of eye and digestive problems. It has a positive effect upon blood sugar and
even, may also promote weight loss if a diet is having non starchy fruits and
vegetables such as apples, pears and green leafy vegetables. Their low glycemic
loads prevent blood sugar spikes that can increase hunger [1].

Fruits and vegetables account for nearly 90% of the total horticulture production
in the country. Commercial value of fruits and vegetables are currently growing
substantially in terms of direct consumption, processing as well as in trade.
Currently, India is amongst the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the
world. The annual production of vegetables has increased from 101.2 million tons
to 184.40 million tons and production of fruits has increased from 50.9 million
tons to 97.35 million tons since 2004-05 to 2017-18, respectively as depicted in
Fig. 1. Apart from nutritional benefits, the production of vegetables improves the
economy of a country as these are very good source of income and employment.
(National Horticulture Board, Horticulture at a Glance, 2018).

Fig. 1. Annual Production of Fruits and Vegetables from 2004 to 2018

In spite of that per capita availability of fruits and vegetables is quite low because
of postharvest losses which account for about 30% to 40% of production [2].
These percentages are not acceptable and adversely affect the Indian economy.
Only 2.2% of total fruits and vegetables produced are processed [3]. In contrast,

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countries like USA (65%) and China (23%) are far ahead of India in reducing the
wastage and enhancing the value addition and shelf life of the farm products [4].
The above discussed problems related to high number of postharvest losses is
ultimately responsible for high marketing costs, market gluts, price fluctuations,
low income to producer and other similar problems. Prices of horticulture
commodities is characterized by seasonality of production and marketing. Fruits
and vegetables are perishable in nature. On account of these characteristics,
such commodities register fluctuation of prices from month to month. These
fluctuations ultimately affect the return to the growers (National Horticulture
Board, Horticulture at a Glance, 2018). To prevent such a huge postharvest loss,
we need to understand how the fruits and vegetable produce distributed and
marketed. How it ultimately affects the consumer can be shown by the flowchart
as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Logistics and Retailing of Horticultural crops

Generally, the huge losses are caused by poor on farm postharvest facility,
farmer knowledge, awareness, poor storage facility across the country,
processing on farm level as well as large scale, cheap technology and cheap
transfer of technology etc. In India, the major losses are at the level of
postharvest facilities [5]. To overcome these losses, we can increase processing
sector of fruits and vegetable, develop multifunctional cold chain facility for
enhancing shelf life, develop on farm postharvest management for providing
better coordination between supply and demand, make aware to farmer about
technology and help to start practicing technology developed by scientists as
cheap as possible etc. In the above suggested ways, postharvest management
helps grower as well as processor to overcome losses and make wastage to
profitable value which ultimately adds up in the economy of country.

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2. POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Postharvest management is a set of post-production practices that includes:

cleaning, washing, selecting, grading, disinfecting, drying, packing, and storing.
These steps eliminate undesirable elements and improve product appearance,
as well as ensuring that the product complies with established quality standards
for fresh and processed products. Postharvest practices include the management
and control of variables such as temperature, relative humidity, the selection and
use of packaging, and the application of supplementary treatments such as
fungicides [6].

After they are harvested, the value of fruits and vegetables needs to be added in
successive stages up to the point when someone consumes them. The aim of
postharvest management is to reduce losses in between harvesting and
distribution and consequently maximize this added value. This ultimately should
benefit the whole community through increased export earnings or extending the
availability of fresh produce throughout the year.

3. POSTHARVEST LOSSES

FAO’s report on Food Losses and Food Waste, defined food losses as those that
take place at production, postharvest and processing stages in the food supply
chain and food wastes are that occur at the end of the food chain i.e. retail and
final consumption [7,8]. The term post-harvest loss refers to qualitative and
quantitative, measurable food losses in the post-harvest system (PHS) [9].
Losses of horticultural produce are a major problem in the postharvest chain.
Kasso and Bekele [10] assessed the post-harvest losses, their causes and
factors causing the quality deterioration among horticultural crops.

Postharvest losses can be caused by a wide variety of factors, ranging from

growing conditions to handling at various level. Losses are not only count of
waste of food, but also represent a waste of human effort, farm inputs,
livelihoods, investments and scarce resources such as water used for production
of food. Post-harvest losses for horticultural produce are, however, difficult to
measure [5]. It would be possible that all produce harvested may be sold to
consumer or 10-20% of the produce may be damaged during handing or whole
process or occasionally, it may be 100%, in case when there isa price collapse
then it may be possible that the cost of produce is more than its return value
[11,5]. In horticultural commodities, postharvest losses occur can be divided into
five stages such as production/harvest, postharvest handling and storage,
processing, distribution and consumption [12]. A conceptual model is shown in
Fig. 3. In this model, different types of postharvest losses are enlisted with their
contributing factor to respective loss.

As harvesting is the first stage where horticultural crops were separated from its
base and were further taken for processing, so we can say it is a very crucial
stage. The proper stage of harvesting is decided according to the utility of the
fruits or vegetables i.e. storage, marketing, processing etc. Harvesting losses are

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those which occur at harvesting stage. These losses are caused by

mechanization, production practices, wrong decisions, moisture and season
(temperature). Losses during harvesting also affects due to nature of fruits and
vegetables, stage of harvesting, method of harvesting, instrument used during
harvesting, and handling during harvesting etc. [13]. Harvesting of any fruits or
vegetables greatly depends upon its morphological and physiological nature. The
nature of fruits and vegetables are highly variable in terms of their origin from
different part of plant viz. roots, stem, leaf, flower etc.

Fig. 3. Post-harvesting losses and their causes (modified from Accorsi et

al., 2014; Aulakh and Regmi, 2013; Gardas et al., 2017a; Papargyropoulou
et al., 2014, Gardas et al., 2018)

Harvesting method are also highly variable according to nature of horticulture

produce. The fruits and vegetables should be harvested at a stage so that it may
reach to the consumer at an ideal condition/quality. Immature and over mature
harvested fruits will give poor quality and erratic ripening and poor shelf-life with
more decay and may increase losses [13]. The harvesting of the fruits should be
done in the early morning hours or late in the evening. As the day hour heat
increases the metabolic rate, results in enhancement of spoilage rate of fruits
and vegetable. The good quality fruits are obtained only when harvesting is done
at proper maturity without injuring the fruits [14]. Harvesting methods viz.
harvesting through hands, plucker, machines used during harvesting greatly
affects quantity of loss due to mechanical damage, cuts, Abrasion bruising etc.
Provide gentle harvesting and handling during harvesting to avoid cuts,
abrasions, and bruising damage that allow decay-causing microorganisms to
enter the tissue [15]. Knowledge and mental ability of decisive person regarding
above discussed criterions can increase or decrease the loss. After harvesting,
fruits and vegetables needs to be stored at low temperatures for removal of field
heat and till the time for further utility [16].

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Factors contributing to the storage losses are storage conditions viz. whether
stored in traditional facilities or modern cold storage, use of inadequate
temperatures, relative humidity, duration of storage, insects and pests,
deterioration, shrinkage, spoilage, improper handling etc. [13]. Modern cold
storage facility is much better than traditional storage facilities. India is lacking in
the total storage capacity which is much lower than the total produced throughout
year. Approximately 80% of total cold storage installed in the country is currently
used for only storage of potato. This also adds in the cost of produce. Improper
handling and stacking during the storage also affect the postharvest storage loss
and limits the shelf life of the produce. Cleaning and sanitation an important
parameter that hinders the losses. Deterioration and spoilage start physical and
mechanical cause followed by biological cause [16].

In fruits and vegetables, many type of processing system are available according
to the final utilization of the product. Losses during processing varied widely
according to the type of processing, each and every step of processing, and
handling during processing.

Losses may be accounted during packing in the field or in the collection center or
in the packing house, especially during sorting and classification of products, due
to mechanical damage and when some of these products are sorted out because
they do not meet the standards established by the market, such as size, weight,
shape, color, etc. Improper packaging viz. uses of faulty packaging, packaging
material; failure of packaging during stacking, handling, processing and improper
labeling during packaging also leads the higher postharvest losses.

During transportation, losses depend on the mode, the distance and time
required for travel, mode of loading and unloading, type of product, conditions
requirement of product, type of containers, conditions of roads as well as vehicle,
temperature management, cleaning and sanitation of vehicle etc.

During marketing, depending on the state in which the products arrive to

markets, weather conditions of place, type of markets viz. open markets,
outdoors or covered, indoor markets, with or without refrigerated displays;
handling during marketing, temporary storage, temperature management, etc. At
home during handling, preparation, and consumption.

4. CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES

Fruits and Vegetables contain high percentage of water in their cell resulting soft
texture and exhibits relatively high metabolic activity even after harvest which
makes them highly perishable. The quality and post-harvest life of fruits and
vegetables, as living organisms, are dependent on some factors, such as
composition of the surrounding atmosphere; temperature; humidity; presence of
mechanical damage due to harvest or shipment; and the type and degree of
infection with microorganisms, attacks by insects etc. [17]. These products are
easily affected by less-than-optimal handling conditions and can be lost or

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wasted during the postharvest period due to many possible causes, such as the
following:

1. Loss of moisture
2. Loss of reserve materials such as carbohydrates
3. Loss of other nutrients such as vitamins
4. Physical loss due to different types of mechanical damage
5. Losses and waste by pests and diseases
6. Losses of quality due to physiological disorders
7. Fiber development (toughness)
8. Greening of some products (e.g., potatoes) when exposed to light
9. Growth as in the case of carrots, potatoes, and onions
10. Germination of seeds

The causes of postharvest losses are very diverse and can be generally
classified under two main categories including primary and secondary causes.

4.1 Primary Causes

The following four primary causes results in major postharvest losses, which may
vary from one region to another.

4.1.1 Biological or microbiological

Biological (internal) causes of deterioration include respiration rate; ethylene

production and action; rates of compositional changes associated with color,
texture, flavor, and nutritive value; water stress; sprouting; physiological
disorders; and pathological breakdowns. Biological or microbiological causes
generally related to attack of macro and micro-organisms such as insects,
bacteria, fungicides, animals, etc., and may result in considerable losses.
Typically, postharvest pathogens do not attack fresh and healthy produce directly
unless any type of wounds, bruises, or other deterioration present on these which
increase its susceptibility to an attack [13].

4.1.2 Chemical or biochemical

As per nature of horticultural produce, chemical and biochemical reactions are

continuously going on even after harvest. If not preserved or used accordingly
then these chemical changes can produce odd color, flavor and odor for example
oxidation which causes browning; over maturity etc. Biochemical reactions are
often triggered by mechanical and physical factors and are part of the
physiological process. On the other hand, there are also negative effects
produced by the different chemicals applied externally, such as pesticides and
insecticides [16].

4.1.3 Mechanical

The major cause of postharvest losses is mechanical damage. This problem can
be very severe and common during harvesting, handling, loading, unloading,

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especially during packing, with the use of poor-quality packaging material, and
during transport. This cause may help the other causes to act and affect the
losses.

4.1.4 Physiological

These are losses occurs during the natural process of plant development or daily
activity for example ripening, senescence, respiration and transpiration.
Moreover, some losses are due to anatomical and morphological changes such
as the germination of some types of produce such as potato, onion, and carrot.

4.2 Secondary Causes

Occurrence of these type of causes are on the basis of primary causes. They
occur only when we are finding the solutions to avoid primary cause. These are
underlying secondary causes includes

4.2.1 Inadequate storage systems

Storage systems provide safety to fruits and vegetables from outer environment
in terms of temperature, humidity, air quality, odd weather conditions,
microorganisms etc. Adequacy or inadequacy of storage system decides the
quantity of losses. In the real system, it is impossible to decrease occurrence of
loss to zero point. Inadequacy of storage system causes the primary losses due
to lack of storage capacity over production capacity, condition of storage, lack of
facilities, lack of pre-storage processing or postharvest processing, handling,
loading and unloading practices, inadequate precooling, temperature
management, relative humidity, and atmospheric composition control cleaning
and sanitation of storage facility [13].

4.2.2 Inadequate transport systems

It is an important system through which distribution of fruits and vegetables can

be possible from place of origin to market place or place of utilization whether it is
near or too far. Post harvest losses took place during transportation are due to
poor transportation facilities, improper handling, poor loading and unloading
practices, bad road conditions and time consumption during transportation and
many more [17].

4.2.3 Inadequate marketing systems

It is the crucial place where the fruits and vegetables finally reach to the hands of
consumer. Growers can produce large quantities of good-quality produce, but
lack of factors such as adequate infrastructure in the market, handling, adequate
inventory control systems; immediacy in marketing etc. in the marketing system
will extensive postharvest losses. Developing countries faces this problem over
developed countries. Lack of communication between producers and marketing
system is also a major halt for perishables.

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4.2.4 Lack of knowledge regarding the proper handling of perishable

products

Knowledge is the basic and important factor which ultimately affects the
perishable not even after harvest. But it also affects before harvest. Lack of
access to postharvest extension or postharvest education on appropriate
handling practices by producers, harvesters, packers, traders, processors, and
marketers directly affects losses of perishable products. Most of the processor
only do limited processing after harvesting i.e. packaging, transporting, and
marketing of horticultural commodities, especially in developing countries. They
have limited awareness on maintenance of quality of fruits and vegetables and
sometime they even did not get any appreciation for the processing specially
done for maintaining and enhancing the quality of fresh produce. Even if they are
aware but they may lack the knowledge and skills to maintain the quality. Hence
it may cause losses in the produce. Special cells from universities such as
extension, advisory services or outreach can run effective and far-reaching
educational programs on the above discussed aspects. The availability of much
needed information of such type of programs may be broadcasted on radio,
mass media and the Internet.

4.3 Environmental Causes

Losses due to improper environmental or climate conditions such as high and

low temperatures, low relative humidity, sunburn, wind, or hail etc. can be
included under environmental causes. The rate of deterioration due to primary
causes also depends on several other environmental (external) factors besides
temperature, including relative humidity, air velocity, and atmospheric
composition (concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene). Odd
weather also causes accountable losses during production, harvesting and
postharvest, but the losses are in very small quantity of total production [13].

4.4 Socioeconomic Causes

Although the other secondary factors are relatively well understood and based on
these causes, many technologies have been developed to avoid or reduce these
causes, they sometimes have been or have not been implemented in certain
regions due to one or more socioeconomic factors. Socioeconomic factors are
the factors affects the horticulture produce only due to economic and social
weakness of the producer. For example, sometime farmers have to leave out
their produce only because of higher production cost over selling value. On this
circumstance, the horticulture produces were in total loss due to lack of storage,
marketing facility, knowledge and awareness about postharvest processing or
postharvest technologies. The following factors viz. lack of marketing system,
lack of transportation system, government regulations and legislations,
unavailability of needed equipment or tools, lack of knowledge or information and
poor maintenance can hinder on the way of postharvest of horticulture produce
socioeconomically. In the previous mentioned factors, some factors already
discussed above in secondary causes. They sometime affect postharvest losses

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not directly but indirectly. Cases like inability of producer to reach market, some
government policies which hinder the cost of production, lowers the selling value
of produce, poor awareness of government policies, availability of poor
postharvest technologies or poor availability of technologies due to unaffordable
price, cost effectiveness of technology, poor awareness of technology, failure of
availability of nearest market causes higher transportation cost etc. can be
accounted under this. We are now going to discuss some of the socioeconomic
factors.

5. GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND LEGISLATIONS

Every country has national system of control on marketing and pricing of fresh
fruits and vegetables. In some countries, prices are fixed by government
agencies. In case of odd government regulations can encourage fraud, bribe
culture. It also does not create any opportunities of incentive for producing high-
quality produce or for postharvest quality maintenance. But in case of fully
privatization, the similar things happen in other way such as low pricing of
produce, putting their own rules whether in favor of grower or not etc. Such
above mentioned systems can cause postharvest losses indirectly as
socioeconomically. System should be such that there will be optimum profit to
grower as well as marketing personnel. Government regulations should also be
applicable only for proper running of system. These should be made in
consideration of the wellbeing of grower and marketing personnel, whether they
come under the small scale, medium scale or large-scale level. Legislations
should be simple, transparent, and easy to understand and apply. Price
transparency is an important point at each level of supply chain viz. grower,
wholesaler, retailer etc. Regulations covering proper handling procedures and
public health aspects (food safety issues) during marketing should be enforced
properly in view of consumer protection. Regulations and guidelines should be
technically and practically sound. Marketing associations and cooperatives
should be encouraged among producers of major commodities in important
production areas. Such organizations are especially needed in developing
countries because of the relatively small farm size. Government needs to aware
both grower as well as marketing personnel for their importance and corporation
to each other, government policies, postharvest technologies, and new
technologies developed by universities etc. and also listen their problems time to
time.

6. UNAVAILABILITY OF NEEDED EQUIPMENT OR TOOLS

Tools and equipment are as significant as maintaining or caring another factor.

Tools and equipment are made to do work according to their specialty and helps
to increase the working capacity in minimum time. The tools and equipment are
needed to minimize the risk of losses at various processes in different
postharvest techniques. In view of importance of tools and equipment, these are
essential but also add cost in the harvest. Not all the equipment and tools are
cheap and affordable to medium and small farm holders. So, government should
help farmer and processor to arrange all the equipment and tools on cheap price

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through government, semi-government or cooperatives for better utilization. This

ultimately helps to reduce losses and increase values. Government should
encourage universities and institutes to develop cheap technology for tools and
equipment. Farmers of similar horticulture produce can accumulate themselves
in SHG’s or FPO’s to use postharvest tools and equipment for their utilization at
low cost and also make a suitable market for direct selling of produce.

7. POOR MAINTENANCE

Creation of good postharvest facility like equipment, structures, and cold

storages is not only the essential part but to maintain these things is also an
important process. Every machinery or equipment has wear and tear and need
maintenance after specific time of span. If maintenance is not provided, then it
may cause losses. It is strongly recommended that any project planning to
establish a postharvest facility (e.g., packinghouse, precooling unit, cold storage)
should include in its plan adequate funds for repairs and maintenance to ensure
its success and extended usefulness and sustainability.

After studying in details the different primary and secondary causes of

postharvest losses, it is concluded that the major losses was observed due to
handling of fruits and vegetables at various steps, lack of use of postharvest
operations or sop’s to handle the fresh harvest, suitable timing of harvest,
precooling the produce just after harvest, improper marketing system, lack of
facilities during marketing, unavailability of needed tools or equipment,
inadequate storage system, transportation system and the minor losses were
observed due to environmental factors, poor maintenance, lack of awareness
and information etc. Losses of fruits and vegetables are either major or minor, it
always decreases the total value and also down the confidence of grower and
marketing personnel. We cannot go with such huge losses in future. So, these
losses need to be reduced and could be reduce through postharvest
management and processing of fruits and vegetables. Now we are going to study
in details the techniques used in postharvest management system which helps in
reduction of postharvest losses in horticulture produce.

8. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY
Different techniques used in the postharvest management system are precooling,
cleaning, washing, selection, grading, disinfection, drying, packing and storage
etc. After harvesting availability of perishable produces up to long time is possible
only when skilled and scientific processing approaches to preserve the products
is used.

8.1 Harvest Handling

Fruit and vegetables that are fresh and have good flavor may increase the repeat
orders and may bring higher prices. Freshness and peak flavor retention of fruits
and vegetables depends upon that how produce is handled directly after harvest.
Gentle harvesting and handling are needed to avoid cuts, abrasions, bruising.

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These damages allow decay-causing micro-organisms to enter the tissue and

starts deterioration [17]. Mechanical damage can increase moisture loss in the
fresh produce. A single bad bruise on apple may increase the rate of moisture
loss as much as 400%, and in case of vegetables, skinned potatoes may lose its
weight by three to four times of non-skinned potatoes. These damages can be
prevented and reduced by training harvest labor about handling the crop;
harvesting of mature crop; handling each fruit or vegetable no more than
necessary; aware labor about harvesting and postharvest techniques; avoiding
over or under-packing of containers etc.

If possible, harvest the produce only when you can pack or sell before the quality
deteriorates. The plan of planting should be such that harvesting of the fruits and
vegetables with varying maturity time can be done successively. So, availability
of these can be fulfilled over an extended period. At farm level, sun rays are the
source of energy and heat. Conversely, shade is cheap source of cool
environment. Shade under tree or shade cover on field wagons, trucks and
market area to hold the produce while wait for further processing can be a good
way to use cheap and natural resources. Good methods of handling during
harvesting, transportation and storage enlarged the shelf life and maintained the
qualitative characteristics of the harvested produces [17].

Commonly, the simplest operation is used i.e. to collect the produce in containers
and then placed into storage or transported to a market without additional sorting
or packing. Variation should be used to extend the shelf life of fruits and
vegetables i.e. to trim off excess leaves or stems before placing into the field
container. These simple packing operations are adequate only when there is a
small distance between farm and market and produce is sold directly to
consumers generally used by vegetables grower close to the towns and/or
consuming areas.

Postharvest operations can also be varied according to type of horticulture

produce. Curing an important postharvest operation specially is used for
vegetable crops only if they need to be stored before marketing. Curing may add
cost to the produce initially but practically it is economical, as it extends the
storage life of produce. Curing is the process of holding the horticulture produce
at high temperature and high relative humidity for several days after harvesting.
The main objective is to heal the wounds and form a new protective layer of cells.
Best conditions for curing vary among crops are mentioned below in Table 1.

Table 1. Curing conditions for different horticultural crops

S. No. Crop Temperature Relative Time

Humidity
1 Potato 15-20OC 90-95% 5-10 Days
2 Sweet Potato 30-32OC 85-90% 4-7 Days
3 Yam 32-40OC 90-100% 4-7 Days
4 Cassava 30-40OC 90-95% 2-5 Days

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Onions and garlic can be cured directly in the field in regions where harvesting
coincides with the dry season. Commonly in practice, onion and garlic bulbs after
harvest are allowed to dry the external layers of skin and neck tissue prior to
handling and storage. These crops can be undercut in the field and left in the soil
to dry for five to eight days, depending on the air temperature and moisture. The
separated dry tops of the plants can be arranged to cover and shade the bulbs
during the curing process to protect the produce from excessive heat and
sunburn. The dried layer of skin will protect the produce from further water loss
during storage and reduce mold and bacteria attacks. The crops can also be
cured after packing into 15 to 25 kg fiber or net sacks.

Cooling is necessary for fruits and vegetables at different stages like after
harvesting (pre cooling), during storage (cold storage) and during transportation
(vehicles with freezer) for controlling the spoilage, losses and degradation in the
quality aspects of the produces [17]. In case of mostly fruits, first step is to
remove field heat of the fresh horticulture produce. So precooling is the best
postharvest operation to remove field which alternatively decreases the
respiration rate and prolongs the shelf life of fresh produce.

8.2 Precooling

Quality of the fruits and vegetables greatly depends upon temperature because
optimum temperature retards over ripening, softening, respiration rate and
spoilage and conversely, higher temperature accelerate the process of
deterioration [18]. Absorption of the heat via surrounding temperature causes the
high respiration and successive deterioration of the fresh products [17].

Precooling is the chilling of fresh produce just above the temperature of chilling
injury or freezing of that fruits to reduce losses and to achieve maximum storage
life of the produce. Chilling injury is the physiological disorders or abnormalities
which are associated due to change in temperature when exposed to just above
freezing temperature. If physiological disorders or abnormalities come up with
temperature below freezing temperature i.e. below 0 OC or freezing temperature
of cellular soluble material, then these disorders or abnormalities caused due to
freezing of cellular material are called freezing injuries. According to the physical
and chemical properties, the freezing temperature of different consumable
commodities varies and maintained the initial frozen temperature between -10 to
-40OC [19,17]. To maximize the effect of precooling the crop should be brought to
the optimum temperature as quickly as possible after harvest.

Rate of ethylene production in fruits and vegetables directly linked with the fruit
ripening which is affected by the temperature of surrounding environment. In a
ripening fruit, low concentration of ethylene ensures the slow rate of ripening and
enhances the shelf life. In terms of respiratory activity, the fruits can be classified
into two categories i.e. climacteric and non-climacteric. Fruits which normally
ripen even after harvest are climacteric fruits. Whereas, non-climacteric fruits got
ripening before the harvest and are have to be harvested only after ripening [14].

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There are many methods of precooling used before storage of horticultural

produce. Method used for Pre-cooling and requirement of pre-cooling for any
commodity is determined by nature of fruit and the temperature conditions at the
harvest time. Highly perishable commodities must be precooled as soon as
possible after harvest. In winter Season, Requirement of Pre-cooling for the crop
is not as important as in summer season such as apple. Different methods of
pre-cooling are as follows:

8.2.1 Ice cooling

It is an ancient method of pre cooling which has been used for many decades.
Contact or package icing was used extensively for pre-cooling of produce before
the advent of modern pre-cooling techniques. It also maintains temperature
during transit. There is different method of icing through which ice is applied to
achieve the desired cooling effect.

In this method, crushed ice made from fresh clean water is commonly applied to
boxes of produce by placing in a layer directly on top of the crop. The ice melts
and the cold water runs down through the crop and cools it. Alternatively, Ice can
also be applied as ice slurry that is poured into the top of the crop from a tank. A
typical slurry is made from 60% finely crushed ice, 40% water and usually with
0.1% sodium chloride to lower the melting point of the ice, although the water: ice
ratios may vary from 1:1 to 1:4. Ice slurry fills the voids around the produce as
compared to direct usage of Ice. Ice slurries give greater contact between
product and ice, compared with top icing, and therefore should result in quicker
cooling. Liquid icing may be considered a hybrid of package icing and hydro-
cooling. The main use of icing method is for road transport and can be applied
shortly after harvest. Field-packed lettuce or broccoli was top iced to begin
precooling as the crop is harvested.

Approximately1 kg of ice was recommended for 1.8 kg of spinach leaves (Suslow

and Cantwell 1999). For example, field-packed lettuce or broccoli was top iced to
begin pre cooling as the crop is harvested. Tindall (1983) reported that crushed
ice used for pre cooling of peas might extend their storage life from a week to
15–20 days. Breadfruit normally ripened in 1–3days after harvest but precooling
with chipped ice could extend their shelf life in the field and during transport
(Ragone, 2011). Wardlaw (1937) recommended top icing as soon as possible
after harvesting for chicory and spinach. Lutz and Hardenburg (1968) found that
top icing caused water spotting in okra and green beans.

8.2.2 Room cooling

It is most widely used technique due to its versatility and low cost. However, this
is not true method of pre-cooling. The room cooled product must be tolerant of
slow heat removal because it involves the cooling by heat conduction through
container walls. Containers are placed in room cooled by refrigeration system.
This system must provide air circulation through and around containers. Cold air
from evaporators enters the room from ceiling moves horizontal under the ceiling

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and then it passes through the produce. Container position is very important in
the handling sequence. Main advantage of room cooling it can be cooled and
stored in the same room without being transferred; however, it is too slow and
can result in excessive water loss [20]. Moreover, addition of warm produce into
the cold room may result in condensation of already cooled produce.

8.2.3 Forced air cooling

Cooled air is pulled by using fans through container went and warm air is swept
away. It is 4 to 10 ten faster than room cooling and 23 time slower than hydro
cooling. It is most effective for strawberry, grapes and soft fruits in general. It
consists of row off containers on either side of the exhaust fan leaving space
between the rows. Exhaust fan creates negative air pressure within tunnel. Cold
air from rooms moves through the opening in between the containers and
sweeps the heat from the product. In this case containers must be rearranged in
order to prevent dehydration after precooling is achieved. In this method
permanent air column is created by the construction of dummy wall equipped
with exhaust fans [20]. It is located at one end of the cold room opening are
located along the room against which the containers can be placed. This is a
good system for operation in which produce arrives at a variable time.

8.2.4 Hydro cooling

Cold water treatment is old and effective method for quickly pre-cooling. Wide
range of fruits and vegetables hydro cooling can be based on immersion are
showering in shower type hydro cooler. Cold water is pumped from bottom to
overhead perforated pan. Water shower over commodities may be in bin are
boxes or loose on conveyer belt passing beneath. Water leaving product may be
filtered to remove the dabarge then passed over refrigeration coils where it is
recooled by evaporation or refrigeration. Ice can also be added to water when
cooling system is not enough to keep the water temperature near 0 OC. Cooling
by this method is generally greater than air cooling and there is no product
dehydration. Only precaution in this method is that packing and packaging
material must be tolerant to wetting, resistance to water impact and tolerant to
chemicals which we generally used to sanitize hydro cooling water. Produce
must be tolerant to prolonged exposure to a temperature of 0 OC. Hydro cooling
operation can require re-handling of produce before packing or storage and
increases the labour cost [20]. This is a best method for cherries.

8.2.5 Package icing

For cooling and maintaining low temperatures during short-time storage, a finely
crushed, flaked ice, and ice–water mixture is kept in direct contact with the
produce. The latent heat of melting of ice (334 kJ/kg) provides the cooling effect.
This method is limited for products that can tolerate both weight of the ice and
water that wets the product and the package. Use of ice slurry is recommended
to avoid mechanical damage due to sharp-end ice. It is commonly used for
cooling spinach and broccoli during transport and retail displays.

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9. POST HARVEST TREATMENTS

Living tissues of fresh fruits are subjected to continuous changes after harvesting
and from consumer’s point of view, some changes are desirable but most are
not. The Postharvest changes in fresh produce cannot be stopped, but they can
be slowed down within certain limits to increase the shelf life of produce. The
post-harvest treatments play significant role in enhancing the storage and
marketable life of horticultural products. Following are the most important
postharvest treatments:

(i) Washing with chlorine solution: To control the inoculums build up

during packing operations, Chlorine treatment (100–150 ppm available
chlorine) is given. For best results, pH of wash water must be between 6.5
and 7.5.
(ii) Ethylene inhibitors/Growth regulator/fungicide treatments: For
inhibiting ethylene production and action during ripening and storage of
fruits and vegetables, some chemicals such as 1 -MCP (1-methyl
cyclopropene), AVG (Amenoethoxyvinyl glycine), silver nitrate, silver
thiosulfate, cycloheximide, benzothiadiazole etc. are used. As a growth
regulators or fungicidal application, GA 3 can be effectively used to
extend/enhance the shelf life [16].
(iii) Calcium application: To increase the storage and marketable life of fruits
by maintaining their firmness and quality, the post-harvest application of
CaCl2 or Ca(NO3)2 play role. Calcium delays aging or ripening, reduces
postharvest decay, controls the development of many physiological
disorders and increases the calcium content, thus improving their
nutritional value. Calcium infiltration reduces chilling injury and increase
disease resistance in stored fruit. The post-harvest application of CaCl2
(2–4 %) or Ca(NO3)2 for 5–10 min dip enhance the storage life of pear up
to 2 months, plum up to 4 weeks and apple up to 6 months at 0–2 OC with
excellent color and quality.
(iv) Thermal treatments: Thermal treatments include
a. Hot water treatment: Fruits may be dipped in hot water before marketing
or storage to control various post-harvest diseases and improving peel
color of the produce.
b. Vapor heat treatment (VHT): This treatment proved very effective in
controlling infection of fruit flies in fruits after harvest. The boxes are
stacked in a room, which are heated and humidify by injection of steam. A
recommended treatment for citrus, mangoes, papaya and pineapple is
43OC in saturated air for 8 h and then holding the temperature for further 6
h. VHT is mandatory for export of mangoes [16].
(v) Fumigation: The fumigation of SO2 is successfully used to limit post-
harvest diseases of grapes. For fumigation procedure, boxes of produce
are placed in a gas tight room and gas of appropriate concentration is
introduced. The key function of treatment is to control the fungus Botrytis
Cinerea as well as to prevent discoloration of skin of litchis.
(vi) Irradiation: Ionizing radiation can be applied to fresh fruits and vegetables
for prevention of cell reproduction and to control micro-organisms. It can

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be applied by exposing the crop to radiations from radioisotopes (normally

in the form of gamma-rays measured in Grays (Gy), where 1 Gy = 100
rads.
(vii) Waxing: It is a common post-harvest practice to reduce water loss during
handling and marketing and food grade waxes are used to replace some
of the natural waxes removed during harvesting and sorting operations
and can help. Along with improvement in eye appeal, waxing has great
significance in sealing tiny injuries and scratches on surface of fruits and
vegetables [20]. Before packing, wax coating must be allowed to dry
thoroughly [21].

9.1 Cleaning and Washing

This is a treatment given to remove adhering dust, dirt, extraneous matter,

pathogenic load etc. from the surface of a commodity. Cleaning basically
sanitizes the produce and avoids entry of undesirable contents to enter the
packaging and storage line. Cleaning is a broader term and includes, dusting (dry
method), washing (wet method) etc. Washing is done at the pack house through
automated washing system fitted with overhead sprayers and smooth rotating
brushes to clean and wash the vegetables. Washing with clean water mixed with
a neutral detergent at 0.1% (1ml/liter of water) is effective. The process of
cleaning and washing will take 3-5 minutes. The temperature of water should at
room temperature (37OC) [20].

9.2 Sorting and Grading

Sorting and Grading is done to eliminate undesirable types of vegetables i.e.

diseased, damaged, deformed. It can be done primarily to reduce spread of
infection to other vegetables. During grading, fruits and vegetables are
categorized according to difference in their weight, size, color, maturity etc. It can
be done to fetch better price in the market.

9.3 Packaging
For packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables, are bamboo baskets, plastic crates,
plastic bags, or nylon sacks are used in many developing countries. Often, they
are transported in an unpackaged form. After harvesting, fresh horticulture
produce is transported from the farm to either a packing house or distribution
center. Farmers sell their produce either in fresh markets or in wholesale
markets. At the retail level, fresh produce is sold in an unpackaged form, or is
tied in bundles. This type of market handling has a risk of lower shelf life, if it is
not sold quickly. The application of proper postharvest technologies, would,
however, extend postharvest shelf life, retain fresh quality and reduce losses.
The role of Packaging is very precious in protecting fresh produce.

• It provides protection from dust.

• It reduces microbial contamination from the surrounding environment and
from consumer contact

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• It helps in maintaining the freshness of produce

• It enhances the postharvest shelf life
• It helps to increase the sale of fresh produce.

The following are among the more important general requirements and functions
of food packaging materials/containers:

(a) They must be non-toxic and compatible with the specific foods;
(b) They must have good barrier properties against moisture and gas
(c) Package must have excellent features such as ease of opening, pouring
and reseal features, ease of disposal etc. [22].

The package must suit according to the physiological characteristics of the

produce. Fruits and vegetables may be characterized as being either climacteric
or non- climacteric, depending on their respiratory pattern. Non-climacteric fruit
ripen only while still attached to the parent plant. If they are harvested before
proper ripening, their eating quality may because their sugar and acid contents
do not increase further. Examples of non-climacteric fruit include: cherries,
cucumbers, grapes, lemons and pineapples [23].

Climacteric fruit can be harvested when mature but before the onset of ripening.
These fruits may undergo either natural or artificial ripening. The onset of
ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in respiration rate, generally referred to
as the respiratory climacteric. After the climacteric, the respiration rate slows
down as the fruit ripens and develops good eating quality. Examples of
climacteric fruit include: apples, bananas, melons, papaya and tomatoes [23].

9.4 Storing

Different vegetables require different storage conditions. Starchy vegetables

such as potatoes, squash and members of onion family are best stored @ 60-
700 OF (15.5 - 21.10 OC) in a dry location. If stored in a refrigerator, they will lose
flavor and texture. Most other vegetables should be stored at refrigerator
temperature. Store vegetables away from fruits that emit ethylene gas, such as
bananas. The gas will cause continued ripening and possible decay.

9.5 Storing Temperature

Temperature is a key factor affecting product deteriorating rate. For shelf-life

extension of fresh produce, temperature is effective tool. It has key effects on
spores’ germination and pathogen growth. If the temperature goes abnormal than
its optimal range it has caused two types of injuries in crops, i.e. chilling injuries
and heat injuries [17].

10. CONCLUSION

In summary, minimizing postharvest losses, improving economic sustainability,

and guaranteeing food security all depend on efficient postharvest management

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of fruits and vegetables. Postharvest losses, which make up between 30% and
40% of production, pose serious problems for the agricultural industry since they
lead to price volatility, gluts in the market, and lower producer incomes. Even
though India is one of the world's top producers of fruits and vegetables, very
little of the crop gets processed, meaning there is still much space for
improvement in terms of decreasing waste and raising value addition. Effective
mitigation solutions require an understanding of the causes of postharvest
losses, which might range from inadequate processing and storage infrastructure
to subpar on-farm facilities. To increase shelf life, decrease spoilage, and
preserve product quality, a variety of advance postharvest techniques and
technologies are used. These include fumigation, irradiation, heat treatments,
calcium applications, ethylene inhibitors, and waxing.

Furthermore, educating farmers about best practices and emerging technology

can help minimize losses and maximize revenues throughout the supply chain.
Infrastructure development initiatives, such as the construction of multipurpose
cold chain facilities, can also play a major role in this regard. To fully solve the
intricate problems related to postharvest management, cooperation between
governmental organizations, academic institutions, and the commercial sector is
required. Growers and processors can reduce losses, increase market
accessibility, and improve the overall economic viability of fruit and vegetable
production by putting integrated postharvest management strategies into
practice. These strategies include using proper harvesting techniques, handling
with care, and applying appropriate treatments on time as sequentially shown in
Fig. 4. In the end, postharvest management investments benefit all parties
involved in agriculture and support local and national economic growth,
sustainable development, and food security.

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Fig. 4. Sequential Post harvest operations

[12]

COMPETING INTERESTS

Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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Biography of author(s)

Dr. Sandeep Janghu, M.Sc., M.Tech., Ph.D.

Department of Food Technology, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791112, Arunachal
Pradesh, India.

He is working as an Associate Professor and Head Department of Food Technology at Rajiv Gandhi
University (A central university), Arunachal Pradesh. Prior to joining RGU, he was associated with the
National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), Thanjavur, under
the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), Govt. of India. He served as a nominated technical
committee expert under several schemes of SAMPADA by MoFPI during 2018-2023. He was also a
member of the subsidy sanctioning committee under the Mission Organic Value Chain Development
(MOVCD) scheme for the North East Region by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare, Govt. of
India. He completed his Ph.D. in Food Engineering and Technology from Sant Lonogwal Institute of
Engineering and Technology (SLIET), Punjab, India. He did an M.Sc. in Food Science and Technology
followed by M. Tech in Food Engineering from Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and
Technology, Hisar, India. He received a fellowship from MASHAV for an International PG course on
Food Safety and Security, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, ISRAEL in 2014. He completed several
research and establishment projects. He has more than 14 years of teaching and industrial experience.
He has published numerous research articles in national and international journals and has undergone
several trainings on food safety and quality assurance.

Dr. Vikas Kumar (Ph.D. Food Technology)

Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004,
Punjab, India.

He has more than 8 years of teaching and research experience. He worked in various fields including
fruits and vegetable processing, food processing waste utilization, food bioprocessing, traditional foods,
health and nutraceutical food development and underutilized crop utilization. He is associated with
different technological developments in the preparation of apple tea and custard apple wine, spiced
radish and chayote juice, antioxidant-rich ginger candy etc. He is a member of the editorial board of
different national and international journals including “Plant Food for Human Nutrition”. He is handling
one externally funded project of DST. He has 73 research papers, 53 review papers, 20 book chapters,
1 book review, and 3 popular articles.

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 Current Perspectives in Agriculture and Food Science Vol. 7
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Profile of Dr. Ashok Kumar Yadav

Department of Food Technology, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791112, Arunachal
Pradesh, India.

He is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Technology at Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar,
Arunachal Pradesh, India. He completed his Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, India. He qualified for ICAR NET in 2014. He has more than seven years of
experience in teaching and research. He participated and presented papers in many trainings,
workshops and 13 national and 6 international conferences. He organized one workshop and two
national seminars. He is an annual member of the Association of Food Scientists and Technologists
(India) and the Indian Dairy Association, New Delhi, India. He has published 18 research papers and 27
book chapters in reputed peer-reviewed journals and books. He is the editor of 07 national-level books.
His research areas include nutraceutical and functional foods, food packaging, dairy technology and fruit
and vegetable processing.
___________________________________________________________________________________
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