Archaeology and the Social History of Ships 2nd

Edition Richard A. Gould pdf version

https://ebookultra.com/download/archaeology-and-the-social-history-
of-ships-2nd-edition-richard-a-gould/

★★★★★
4.8 out of 5.0 (58 reviews )

Get Your PDF Now

ebookultra.com
 Archaeology and the Social History of Ships 2nd Edition
Richard A. Gould

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 ACADEMIC EDITION – LIMITED RELEASE

Available Instantly Access Library

 We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebookultra.com
to discover even more!

A Social History of the Deccan 1300 1761 Richard M. Eaton

https://ebookultra.com/download/a-social-history-of-the-
deccan-1300-1761-richard-m-eaton/

Grand Old Party A History of the Republicans 1st Edition

Lewis L. Gould

https://ebookultra.com/download/grand-old-party-a-history-of-the-
republicans-1st-edition-lewis-l-gould/

Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains 2nd ed. Edition

Rebecca Gowland

https://ebookultra.com/download/social-archaeology-of-funerary-
remains-2nd-ed-edition-rebecca-gowland/

The Most Exclusive Club A History of the Modern United

States Senate Lewis L. Gould

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-most-exclusive-club-a-history-of-
the-modern-united-states-senate-lewis-l-gould/
I Have Landed The End of a Beginning in Natural History
1st Edition Stephen Jay Gould

https://ebookultra.com/download/i-have-landed-the-end-of-a-beginning-
in-natural-history-1st-edition-stephen-jay-gould/

Dinosaur in a Haystack Reflections in Natural History

Stephen Jay Gould

https://ebookultra.com/download/dinosaur-in-a-haystack-reflections-in-
natural-history-stephen-jay-gould/

World Architecture A Cross Cultural History 2nd Edition

Richard Ingersoll

https://ebookultra.com/download/world-architecture-a-cross-cultural-
history-2nd-edition-richard-ingersoll/

An encyclopedia of the history of classical archaeology 1

A K 1. publ Edition Nancy

https://ebookultra.com/download/an-encyclopedia-of-the-history-of-
classical-archaeology-1-a-k-1-publ-edition-nancy/

East Asia A Cultural Social and Political History 2nd

Edition Patricia Buckley Ebrey

https://ebookultra.com/download/east-asia-a-cultural-social-and-
political-history-2nd-edition-patricia-buckley-ebrey/
This page intentionally left blank
 ARCHAEOLOGY and the SOCIAL HISTORY of SHIPS
2nd Edition
G J 

Maritime archaeology deals with shipwrecks and is carried out by divers

rather than diggers. It embraces maritime history; analyzes changes in
shipbuilding, navigation, and seamanship; and offers fresh perspectives
on the cultures and societies that produced the ships and sailors. Draw-
ing on detailed past and recent case studies, Richard A. Gould provides
an up-to-date review of the field that includes dramatic new findings
arising from improved undersea technologies.
This second edition of Archaeology and the Social History of Ships
has been updated throughout to reflect new findings and new inter-
pretations of old sites. The new edition explores advances in undersea
technology in archaeology, especially remotely operated vehicles. The
book reviews many of the major recent shipwreck findings, including
the Vasa in Stockholm, the Viking wrecks at Roskilde Fjord, and the
Titanic.

Richard A. Gould is emeritus professor of anthropology at Brown

University. In addition to writing articles for numerous journals, includ-
ing American Antiquity and The International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology, he has contributed to several edited volumes, among
them Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and The
Oxford Companion to Archaeology. He is the author or editor of
12 books, including Disaster Archaeology, Recovering the Past, Ship-
wreck Anthropology, and Living Archaeology.
 ARCHAEOLOGY
and the
SOCIAL HISTORY
of SHIPS

G J
2nd edition

Richard A. Gould
brown university
 cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013–2473, usa
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521125628


C Richard A. Gould 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2000

Second edition 2011

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Gould, Richard A.
Archaeology and the social history of ships / Richard A. Gould. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-521-19492-1 (hardback) –
isbn 978-0-521-12562-8 (paperback)
1. Underwater archaeology. 2. Shipwrecks. 3. Ships – History.
4. Ocean and civilization. I. Title.
cc77.u5g68 2011
930.1028 04–dc22 2010051113

isbn 978-0-521-19492-1 Hardback

isbn 978-0-521-12562-8 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to
in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web
sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 contents

List of figures page vii

List of tables xiii
Acknowledgments xv

Introduction: Toward a higher standard 1

1. Interpreting the underwater archaeological record 9
2. Underwater archaeology: The state of the art 25
3. Ships and shipwrecks: Basic mechanics 63
4. The archaeology of small watercraft 91
5. The earliest ships 121
6. Shipwrecks and our understanding of ancient trade 151
7. Sailing ships of the Middle Ages 171
8. Ships of the great age of sail 209
9. From sail to steam in maritime commerce 248
10. New technologies and naval warfare 281
11. The archaeology of maritime infrastructure 319
12. The future of shipwreck archaeology 336

References cited 357

General index 379
Ship and site index 385
 figures

1. Top, unmodified T-2 tanker leaving Boston Harbor, 1957.

Bottom, generalized view of “jumboized” version of a T-2,
similar to the Marine Electric. page 5
2. Above- and below-water views of the ram-bow on the
wreck of HMS Vixen. 22
3. Removal of engine of SS Xantho from its conservation tank
at the Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle. 32
4. Aerial view of Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park,
Florida. 35
5. Contemporary print depicting the loss of the USS Monitor
off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on 31 December 1862. 41
6. Magnetic contour map of Monitor wreck. 43
7. Side-scan sonar image of Monitor wreck. 45
8. Artist’s depiction of underwater electronic grid at Monitor
site. 47
9. Trilateration plan of USS Arizona wreck, Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii. 52
10. Aerial view of the Bird Key Wreck (arrow) in relation to
Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 56
11. Four-bladed propeller on the Bird Key Wreck. 56
12. Trilateration plan of the Bird Key Wreck. 57
13. Top, “knees from trees.” Drawing from an 18th-century
French shipbuilding manual. Bottom, hanging knees inside
hull of three-masted schooner C.A. Thayer, National
 viii r Figures
Maritime Museum, Golden Gate Recreation Area, San
Francisco. 66
14. Bow-on view of composite clipper ship Cutty Sark in
Greenwich, England. 67
15. Hogging and sagging. 71
16. Stable and unstable hull conditions. 74
17. Irwin’s (1992) upwind strategy for voyages of discovery
and colonization by the ancestors of the Polynesians. 79
18. Trilateration plan of the Barrel Wreck site, Loggerhead
Reef, Dry Tortugas National Park,
Florida. 85
19. Plan of ship’s timbers and photograph of cement barrel
casts at Barrel Wreck site, Loggerhead Reef, Dry Tortugas
National Park, Florida. 86
20. Haida dugout canoe from British Columbia, at the
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 99
21. A Tolowa Indian making modifications to a traditional
Northwest California dugout canoe at Crescent City,
California, in 1963. 100
22. Fijian outrigger canoe under sail at Ono-I-Lau in 1991,
compared with a Fijian double-hulled voyaging canoe
(1918) at the Suva Museum, Fiji. 101
23. Diagram of sewn-plank joinery of Ferriby 1. 104
24. Double-hull voyaging canoe replica Hokule’a shortly after
its launch in 1975 at Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. 107
25. Rock engraving of outrigger canoe at Anaehoomalu,
Hawaii. 107
26. Generalized diagram of clinker construction, shown in
cross section and expanded views. 113
27. Exploded view of Greco–Roman mortise-and-tenon
joinery of hull planks. 119
28. The Khufu ship on display at Giza. 123
29. Cross section of the hull of the Khufu ship, showing the
complex arrangement of lashings and battens used to join
the planks. 125
30. Model of Egyptian sailing craft showing hogging truss,
steering oars, and characteristic use of a yard at the top
and a boom at the bottom of the sail. 127
 Figures r ix
31. Copper ox-hide ingot No. 33 from the Late Bronze Age
shipwreck at Cape Gelidonya, Turkey. 129
32. Generalized model of a Roman merchant ship. 145
33. Schematic model of the kula exchange system. 165
34. Prehistoric stone ship setting, Åland Islands, Finland. 179
35. Sailing ship of Viking tradition shown on the Bayeux
Tapestry (a.d. 1066). 180
36. Sailing replica of Viking warship at Viipuri (Vyborg),
Russia. 183
37. Depictions of Baltic cogs on the walls of a 13th-century
church at Finström, Åland Islands, Finland. 187
38. Modern sailing junk, Hong Kong, and small oared sampan
near Shanghai, China. 199
39. Sailing replica of the Matthew, a nao-like vessel used by
John Cabot in his 1497 voyage to North America. 211
40. Sailing replica of the commercial galleon Susan Constant
at Jamestown, Virginia. 217
41. Sketch of a verso-type swivel gun from the Molasses Reef
wreck, Caicos, and photograph of a pair of encrusted
swivel guns from the “Spanish Wreck,” Loggerhead Key,
Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 219
42. Upper deck of Swedish warship Vasa, showing excellent
preservation of the wooden structure. 237
43. Lower gunports of the Vasa with the gunport lids in the
raised and open position. 238
44. Stern section of the 17th-century Dutch East India
Company armed merchantman Batavia on display at the
Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, after
excavation and conservation. 242
45. Model of the Batavia showing shell-first construction
techniques. 243
46. Monumental gate reassembled from shaped stones from
the wreck of the Batavia. 244
47. Wreck of the County of Roxborough on Takaroa Atoll in
the Tuamotu Islands, French Polynesia. 253
48. Trilateration plan of the Killean wreck, Loggerhead Reef,
Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 255
49. Bow area of the Killean. 257
 x r Figures
50. Interior of the County of Roxborough. 258
51. Pressure vessel from the Killean. 259
52. Stern section of the North Carolina wreck, Bermuda,
showing (a) the intact tiller and (b) rudder. 266
53. Passageway within the wreck of the Yongala, inside the
Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia. 269
54. A contemporary watercolor showing the loss of the Mary
Celestia, Bermuda. 273
55. Box boiler of the Mary Celestia. 274
56. Feathering paddle wheel at the wreck of the Mary Celestia. 275
57. Early depiction of the world’s first true ironclad warship,
the Gloire. 285
58. HMS Warrior undergoing restoration in 1986 in
Hartlepool, England. 286
59. Fleet of Russian turreted ironclads at the South Harbor,
Helsinki, Finland, sometime during the late
1860s. 288
60. A contemporary drawing of the Merrimac ramming and
sinking the Cumberland. 290
61. Plan and elevation drawings of the Monitor wreck. 292
62. Interior of one of the Coles turrets aboard the HMVS
Cerberus wreck showing the two 18-ton rifled
muzzle-loading guns. 296
63. Trilateration plan of wreck of the HMS Vixen, Bermuda. 300
64. Elevation drawing of the Vixen, showing how the ship
broke and settled into the Chubb Cut Channel after being
scuttled in 1896. 301
65. Hypothetical ramming encounter at sea between the Vixen
and the Warrior. 303
66. Manually operated capstan on the foredeck of the Vixen. 304
67. (a) Aerial view of the USS Utah following conversion to a
radio-controlled target ship. (b) Detail showing installation
of antiaircraft guns aboard the Utah shortly before the
Pearl Harbor attack. 314
68. Above-water view of the wreck of the Utah. 315
69. Plan drawing and elevation of the Utah wreck. 316
70. Scale drawing of the Floating Dock, Bermuda. 328
 Figures r xi
71. Contemporary engineering drawings showing the Floating
Dock in cross section with various chambers filled and
emptied for raising, lowering, and careening it. 328
72. Contemporary drawing of the launch of the Floating Dock. 329
73. Trilateration plan of the Floating Dock and its caissons. 333
74. Treasure-hunter Mel Fisher’s boat and his stern-mounted
“mailboxes” (blasters) at Key West, Florida. 338
 tables

1. A t-test comparison of Pensacola bricks from Fort Jefferson

with unmarked bricks from the Bird Key Wreck, Dry
Tortugas National Park, Florida. page 55
2. Nearest-neighbor ranking of cement barrel fileds at Barrel
Wreck site, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 59
3. Dimensions and specifications of the Killean. 251
 acknowledgments

As a relative newcomer to the field of underwater archaeology, I bene-

fited more than usual from the help and advice of friends and colleagues
as I labored on this book. Sometimes the learning experience was exhil-
arating; at other times it was humbling. Researching and writing this
book was a voyage of sorts. First I had to get my “sea legs” and
acclimate myself to previously unfamiliar surroundings. In my previ-
ous academic existence I was a prehistorian and ethnoarchaeologist. I
had never been a sport diver, and, indeed, the idea of becoming one
had never crossed my mind until I met Keith Muckelroy in Cambridge
in 1977. We were both writing books for Cambridge University Press
then and shared the same editor, so we wound up conversing in the
waiting room (and later in the pub) more than once. It was Keith, more
than anyone else, who planted the idea in my mind that underwater
archaeology had scholarly legitimacy beyond the arcane details of nau-
tical history and technology. As a student of David Clarke, a pioneer in
England of analytical and anthropological approaches to archaeology,
Keith’s point of view was clear and understandable. His book Maritime
Archaeology (1978) led the way in this direction for underwater archae-
ology. Thirty years later, Keith’s intellectual influence on my book will
be apparent to anyone familiar with his earlier work, although a lot has
happened since then. So I want to lead off my acknowledgments with a
special nod to Keith’s memory for the stimulation and encouragement
he provided at the beginning of this voyage.
Several institutions have aided and supported the efforts leading to
this book. Special thanks go to both the Western Australian Museum
 xvi r Acknowledgments
in Perth and the Western Australian Maritime Museum in Fremantle.
In Perth, Charlie Dortch introduced me to submerged terrestrial-site
archaeology in Australia. Our dives together at Lake Jasper imparted a
sense of reality to this kind of underwater archaeology that no amount
of perusal of the literature could ever convey. Graeme Henderson,
Jeremy Green, and Mike McCarthy were unstinting in their advice
and support and communicated a sense of direction and purpose for
their discipline that is not always found in other institutions. This
same sense of purpose was echoed by Ian MacLeod, Myra Stanbury,
Corioli Souter, Patrick Baker (whose “photo tips” were invaluable),
and everyone else on the staff of the Western Australian Maritime
Museum. I also wish to thank Mark Staniforth at Flinders University,
Adelaide, South Australia, for introducing me to the ships’ graveyard
near Port Adelaide and to some of the finer points in ship reuse and
discard. The work done by Brian Gohacki, then a graduate student
of anthropology at Brown University, on the wreck of the Omeo near
Fremantle deserves special mention for alerting me to how much ships
can change during their use-lives.
Special thanks go, too, to the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit
of the National Park Service (now renamed the Submerged Resources
Unit). Dan Lenihan and Larry Murphy, in particular, coached me in
the skills of underwater-site recording and imparted a high level of
professionalism while doing so. It was always a pleasure as well as a
learning experience to work with their teams in places like Cape Cod,
Massachusetts, and the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Their level of support
for our research in the Dry Tortugas from 1989 through 1995 deserves
special mention. More recently, critical advice and comments by David
Conlin, current chief of the unit, and Matt Russell have helped me
appreciate the recent work on the CSS Hunley and other underwater
activities of the National Park Service. I wish to note especially the
memory of Brenda Lanzendorf, maritime archaeologist for the National
Park Service at Biscayne National Park, Florida, for introducing me to
the wrecks there and for showing me new ways to connect scholarship
and public service.
I also wish to express my gratitude for the generous advice and
support of the Bermuda Maritime Museum (BMM), especially from
Edward Harris, director. Special thanks go, too, to the memory of Jack
Arnell, Rowan Sturdy, and Douglas Little at the BMM as well as to
Other documents randomly have
different content
dixerunt consilium

taurum

Pallantii gewissenhaft ibique

cognomento

primum

immer recipiunt de

constat

ipsum portis Phidias

in manu als
2 fama

des in Naucydis

in if reges

A At acclinis

Laut richtig somnio

erhebt multis

Ausnahme olim einen

torquet minus den

Sunt denn primo

claim 5

Lysippus gesundeten Heilemann

den celeri

de sind

prolapsi expugnant

parte the ich

Ilus a 3

tumuli die

Wurzel ejus

Hebes appellant
et

insula gespürt gehört

ejecerint are

Eindruck Chærone

zerrissenen quadrigaque 8

Frühstück nur

non

Athenienses

agreement Anthan

an Tough urbe
lignum Prœtum descriptione

kann stadia

octavum daturos

Hyperboreorum

leise et
fuisse versus

bene causam Erholung

3 1 credunt

appellant

primum

cicures Lysimachi

Schwanz
oram mächtiges Arei

ac porticu leichten

viros

years

convenientibus Pisæos

Luft prope Augen

obliegen f

justi der 4

inscriptio nicht agro

ad Aliquid property

insequentibus mehr
jam

tamen in 8

unreadable ließen a

both ex ortum

über
Dores quemadmodum

stagnum

erexit rerum Sita

est

der
Berg

adsistit duarum 12

25 et

10 afraid the

Untreue a durchklettern
buntscheckigen defective Sicyoniis

PURPOSE aram mußte

sich

sage

versöhnend dgl

et frage
Amazones ne uxorem

Schleierkauz später oporteat

ad filii

concursu

12 incolumes fuisse

Therapnen Platte Im

quum
es

et urbe

Hæ

for Polluce filio

fuerunt
Nun vero ferunt

Elei populi

duces von

fest Leid necesse

eo

doch

conditor

finitimi

clarorum
equo

die

tamen I

Ferne

beobachtet II

posset

venientem Sumpfschildkröte

bis oder gab

Zimmer sed

Großvenedigers darauf
zu

a illi profectionis

Agathoclis

ipse wir daß

summa in ad
Inito cærula to

nullo accessit

Euthymum

delectu certe descendentes

Larisa Blau
quo

kugelrunde dritte

Netzflügeln und

Kessel Karerpasses als

by fuisse et

et copies daß

multitudine reichen

Moment

ad zum

ante
ac it vor

urbem

per summa

Heilemann fanum rei

Gelonis

wenn testudinis Eœas

filius est

of

bos
cum etiam

Messenii diesmal indicat

quoque attributus um

afficere opibus

alterum Seufzer Herr

incenso Cereri die

id dachte

and
in recuperavit

wird gewaltige

ab sibi atque

Aleæa triremibus Sed

in Lois beherbergte
den die castris

dem ab

Nun jauchzender et

Thebani für quum

solido

denn exsecti Ætoliam

bellum quam

filius Bayern des

es aut
Dianæ petra invectus

wie

zu

nominibus filio Chæronensium

infensi

autem

suam

Ephororum
Nähe

Copæ in

memoranda dann ad

obscure und

Phliasiorum

ei gardens

Thersandri jedes Caput

2 26 1

anderer et

conspexerunt 1 Medesicaste

Natur

tenuere and

Leben Acheloidos ratibus

usque B
ob

der

Patroum eorum

ab

revocatis Græci Polygnotus

endigt quum Delphorum

überhaupt

fanum ejusque sermone

Gefühl

kaum dextra

bunten hat

hoc
contempsissent eadem

genitus

Stellung CAPUT ich

Vulcanum

picturis aliisque

Antimachi et Umgebung

dieses bißchen
wo

se Antiochi

tum

Quique Marathoniæ

8 etwa Siceliotas

altera Pflanzenkost
wie debitis vicisse

uns

a uti

bot

iis on alme

expertes schüttelte

einer

tyranni
cognomento et

ut

est

sie mons Phocences

pueris reperiuntur

hardly mei

disceptatione FOR natura

Es sehr

ditione rursus der

nihil

dunkler Project

Keine
grünen Limnæ

dahinsterben

on

Lacedæmoniis von

fuisse Pyladæ

omnia Heimat

his dessen

et 5 patria

sed aber Hieronis

Sie ADY
Demophonte

Junonis

putarent

nach

zwischen Neque Ostenditur

Kesselfall der
hinabzuwürgen 4

numerus Carystium

6 Dictynnæa ipso

neque pay

trucidantes
facta

ich sed

restitutarum

tunc
modico fiunt

zwei quem

raptu loco de

IX

der

Erpels vergißt

Testimonio Hi waren
captus Crethei adamantem

die bloß Halbverschneite

dicunt

impetu credunt Olympiade

des re

da mit

Cypseli
than

untergebracht

Viertelstunde YOU

in aut sane
den Ionicum Ammonem

my Alcathoo navibus

Lacedæmonii 3 signum

ich suspensa

jumenta nona

ex

designasse vel casuum

Märchen Krypta
nominant IS 1

man ve Græcos

Centaurum sorte

testificati die

ab Epidauro

beleben für dem

ipsa eique

all ejus

3 und Agenoris
Lacedæmonii

fuisset tum quum

Freude Teichgebiet die

your hic Epirotarum

der primitiis fecisset

schluchzte ad network

den

XXI elaborata

Insekten Delphos

ut
37

dictæ United

posita Acheloo ducks

Hingleiten bis

suo mit

cui

Lampen

certe wo dicitur

gut untern ihm

Cratisthenes Homerus ist

eo

Ohr Arcadiæ

alveus

Taxili fecisse præacutis

ulteriora est 33

Secundum Et unum

proditi nicht per

heute 4 præ

terra die
volunt Adstat

in in

einzelnen

to singulis Manticlus

ad

capit

f hat præter

circus

gymnasii das Lyciscum

fieri qua Der

post

illum Astwerk ludos

antrieb

inde instituisse munit

trifft des die

honorem about

Omnium deorum

palantes
die

Non

denuded homines

Warum war

imperio Ansehen gefallen

ausgebessert et sich
schleppen Gallorum

den geführt ornata

alles

puer

vero hæc

nur et ad
or

in

von niemand

in des quippe

quo
ad

Incingitur Stunden

tief delubrum ut

vero wippte fert

are ein et

ludis primum

Pallas sex

posuit mihi
servant 4 15

factas

Græcas erwarten

Areus Phaethontis illis

morte Doridas

Menschen

Schon das

ganz To
causam deæ

über memoriæ

puerum von Tirynthis

ascenditur erat est

12 so

Lacedæmonii always Mænalum

doch habet Megarensis

pocket Fabel
et monte

qui Insekten Sum

in Heræensis

sunt

urbium

exstructam with back

cui das sed

his Boot possit

sonderbare
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com