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Wind Energy Handbook
Wind Energy Handbook
Third Edition

Tony Burton
Wind Energy Consultant, London, UK

Nick Jenkins
Cardiff University, UK

Ervin Bossanyi
DNV GL, Bristol, UK
David Sharpe
Wind Energy Consultant, Essex, UK

Michael Graham
Imperial College, London, UK
This third edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Edition History
John Wiley & Sons Ltd. (1e 2001; 2e 2011)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law.
Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/
permissions.

The right of Tony Burton, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi, David Sharpe and Michael Graham to be identified as the
authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered Offices
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Office
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Burton, Tony, 1947- author. | Jenkins, Nick, 1954- author. | Bossanyi, Ervin, author. | Sharpe,
David, author. | Graham, Michael, author.
Title: Wind energy handbook / Tony Burton, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi, David Sharpe,
Michael Graham.
Description: Third edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020036473 (print) | LCCN 2020036474 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119451099 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119451150 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119451167 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Wind power–Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TJ820 .B869 2021 (print) | LCC TJ820 (ebook) | DDC
621.31/2136–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036473
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036474

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Designed by Dr. Georgios Deskos

Set in 10/12pt TimesNewRoman by SPi Global, Chennai, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

About the Authors xxi

Preface to Second Edition xxiii
Preface to Third Edition xxv
Acknowledgements for the First Edition xxix
Acknowledgements for the Second Edition xxxi
Acknowledgements for the Third Edition xxxiii
List of Symbols xxxv
Figures C1 and C2 – coordinate systems xlv

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical development of wind energy 1
1.2 Modern wind turbines 6
1.3 Scope of the book 8
References 9
Websites 10
Further reading 10

2 The wind resource 11

2.1 The nature of the wind 11
2.2 Geographical variation in the wind resource 13
2.3 Long-term wind speed variations 14
2.4 Annual and seasonal variations 14
2.5 Synoptic and diurnal variations 16
2.6 Turbulence 16
2.6.1 The nature of turbulence 16
2.6.2 The boundary layer 18
2.6.3 Turbulence intensity 20
2.6.4 Turbulence spectra 22
2.6.5 Length scales and other parameters 24
vi CONTENTS

2.6.6 Asymptotic limits 26

2.6.7 Cross-spectra and coherence functions 27
2.6.8 The Mann model of turbulence 29
2.7 Gust wind speeds 30
2.8 Extreme wind speeds 31
2.8.1 Extreme winds in standards 33
2.9 Wind speed prediction and forecasting 35
2.9.1 Statistical methods 35
2.9.2 Meteorological methods 36
2.9.3 Current methods 36
2.10 Turbulence in complex terrain 37
References 37

3 Aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbines 39

3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 The actuator disc concept 41
3.2.1 Simple momentum theory 42
3.2.2 Power coefficient 43
3.2.3 The Betz limit 43
3.2.4 The thrust coefficient 44
3.3 Rotor disc theory 45
3.3.1 Wake rotation 45
3.3.2 Angular momentum theory 46
3.3.3 Maximum power 49
3.4 Vortex cylinder model of the actuator disc 49
3.4.1 Introduction 49
3.4.2 Vortex cylinder theory 51
3.4.3 Relationship between bound circulation and the induced
velocity 51
3.4.4 Root vortex 52
3.4.5 Torque and power 53
3.4.6 Axial flow field 54
3.4.7 Tangential flow field 54
3.4.8 Axial thrust 56
3.4.9 Radial flow and the general flow field 57
3.4.10 Further development of the actuator model 58
3.4.11 Conclusions 59
3.5 Rotor blade theory (blade-element/momentum theory) 59
3.5.1 Introduction 59
3.5.2 Blade element theory 59
3.5.3 The BEM theory 61
3.5.4 Determination of rotor torque and power 63
3.6 Actuator line theory, including radial variation 65
3.7 Breakdown of the momentum theory 66
3.7.1 Free-stream/wake mixing 66
3.7.2 Modification of rotor thrust caused by wake breakdown 66
3.7.3 Empirical determination of thrust coefficient 67
 CONTENTS vii

3.8 Blade geometry 68

3.8.1 Introduction 68
3.8.2 Optimal design for variable-speed operation 68
3.8.3 A simple blade design 72
3.8.4 Effects of drag on optimal blade design 74
3.8.5 Optimal blade design for constant-speed operation 77
3.9 The effects of a discrete number of blades 77
3.9.1 Introduction 77
3.9.2 Tip-losses 77
3.9.3 Prandtl’s approximation for the tip-loss factor 82
3.9.4 Blade root losses 85
3.9.5 Effect of tip-loss on optimum blade design and power 86
3.9.6 Incorporation of tip-loss for non-optimal operation 90
3.9.7 Radial effects and an alternative explanation for tip-loss 91
3.10 Stall delay 92
3.11 Calculated results for an actual turbine 95
3.12 The performance curves 98
3.12.1 Introduction 98
3.12.2 The CP – 𝜆 performance curve 99
3.12.3 The effect of solidity on performance 100
3.12.4 The CQ – 𝜆 curve 101
3.12.5 The CT – 𝜆 curve 101
3.13 Constant rotational speed operation 102
3.13.1 Introduction 102
3.13.2 The KP −1/𝜆 curve 102
3.13.3 Stall regulation 103
3.13.4 Effect of rotational speed change 104
3.13.5 Effect of blade pitch angle change 104
3.14 Pitch regulation 106
3.14.1 Introduction 106
3.14.2 Pitching to stall 106
3.14.3 Pitching to feather 106
3.15 Comparison of measured with theoretical performance 107
3.16 Estimation of energy capture 109
3.17 Wind turbine aerofoil design 113
3.17.1 Introduction 113
3.17.2 The NREL aerofoils 115
3.17.3 The Risø aerofoils 116
3.17.4 The Delft aerofoils 120
3.17.5 General principles for outboard and inboard blade sections 120
3.18 Add-ons (including blade modifications independent of the main
structure) 121
3.18.1 Devices to control separation and stalling 122
3.18.2 Devices to increase CLmax and lift/drag ratio 123
3.18.3 Circulation control (jet flaps) 124
viii CONTENTS

3.19 Aerodynamic noise 126

3.19.1 Noise sources 126
3.19.2 Inflow turbulence-induced blade noise 127
3.19.3 Self-induced blade noise 127
3.19.4 Interaction between turbulent boundary layers on the blade
and the trailing edge 128
3.19.5 Other blade noise sources 128
3.19.6 Summary 129
References 130
Websites 132
Further reading 132
Appendix A.3 Lift and drag of aerofoils 133
A3.1 Drag 134
A3.2 The boundary layer 135
A3.3 Boundary layer separation 136
A3.4 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers and transition 138
A3.5 Definition of lift and its relationship to circulation 141
A3.6 The stalled aerofoil 145
A3.7 The lift coefficient 145
A3.8 Aerofoil drag characteristics 147
A3.8.1 Symmetric aerofoils 147
A3.8.2 Cambered aerofoils 149

4 Further aerodynamic topics for wind turbines 153

4.1 Introduction 153
4.2 The aerodynamics of turbines in steady yaw 153
4.2.1 Momentum theory for a turbine rotor in steady yaw 154
4.2.2 Glauert’s momentum theory for the yawed rotor 156
4.2.3 Vortex cylinder model of the yawed actuator disc 160
4.2.4 Flow expansion 163
4.2.5 Related theories 169
4.2.6 Wake rotation for a turbine rotor in steady yaw 170
4.2.7 The blade element theory for a turbine rotor in steady yaw 171
4.2.8 The blade-element-momentum theory for a rotor in steady
yaw 172
4.2.9 Calculated values of induced velocity 175
4.2.10 Blade forces for a rotor in steady yaw 177
4.2.11 Yawing and tilting moments in steady yaw 177
4.3 Circular wing theory applied to a rotor in yaw 180
4.3.1 Introduction 180
4.3.2 The general pressure distribution theory of Kinner 181
4.3.3 The axisymmetric loading distributions 182
4.3.4 The anti-symmetric loading distribution 184
4.3.5 The Pitt and Peters model 187
4.3.6 The general acceleration potential method 188
4.3.7 Comparison of methods 188
 CONTENTS ix

4.4 Unsteady flow 189

4.4.1 Introduction 189
4.4.2 The acceleration potential method to analyse unsteady flow 190
4.4.3 Unsteady yawing and tilting moments 191
4.5 Unsteady aerofoil aerodynamics 194
4.5.1 Introduction 194
4.5.2 Aerodynamic forces caused by aerofoil acceleration 195
4.5.3 The effect of the shed vortex wake on an aerofoil in unsteady
flow 196
4.6 Dynamic stall 201
4.6.1 Introduction 201
4.6.2 Dynamic stall models 201
4.7 Computational fluid dynamics 207
4.7.1 Introduction 207
4.7.2 Inviscid computational methods 208
4.7.3 RANS and URANS CFD methods 211
4.7.4 LES and DES methods 213
4.7.5 Numerical techniques for CFD 214
4.7.6 Discrete methods of approximating the terms in the
Navier–Stokes equations over the flow field 218
4.7.7 Grid construction 219
4.7.8 Full flow field simulation including ABL and wind turbines 220
References 222
Further reading 225

5 Design loads for HAWTs 227

5.1 National and international standards 227
5.1.1 Historical development 227
5.1.2 IEC 61400-1 228
5.2 Basis for design loads 228
5.2.1 Sources of loading 228
5.2.2 Ultimate loads 229
5.2.3 Fatigue loads 229
5.2.4 Partial safety factors 229
5.2.5 Functions of the control and safety systems 231
5.3 Turbulence and wakes 231
5.4 Extreme loads 233
5.4.1 Operational load cases 233
5.4.2 Non-operational load cases 237
5.4.3 Blade/tower clearance 238
5.4.4 Constrained stochastic simulation of wind gusts 238
5.5 Fatigue loading 240
5.5.1 Synthesis of fatigue load spectrum 240
5.6 Stationary blade loading 240
5.6.1 Lift and drag coefficients 240
5.6.2 Critical configuration for different machine types 241
5.6.3 Dynamic response 241
x CONTENTS

5.7 Blade loads during operation 248

5.7.1 Deterministic and stochastic load components 248
5.7.2 Deterministic aerodynamic loads 249
5.7.3 Gravity loads 258
5.7.4 Deterministic inertia loads 259
5.7.5 Stochastic aerodynamic loads: analysis in the frequency
domain 260
5.7.6 Stochastic aerodynamic loads: analysis in the time domain 270
5.7.7 Extreme loads 274
5.8 Blade dynamic response 277
5.8.1 Modal analysis 277
5.8.2 Mode shapes and frequencies 280
5.8.3 Centrifugal stiffening 281
5.8.4 Aerodynamic and structural damping 283
5.8.5 Response to deterministic loads: step-by-step dynamic
analysis 284
5.8.6 Response to stochastic loads 289
5.8.7 Response to simulated loads 292
5.8.8 Teeter motion 292
5.8.9 Tower coupling 297
5.8.10 Aeroelastic stability 302
5.9 Blade fatigue stresses 302
5.9.1 Methodology for blade fatigue design 302
5.9.2 Combination of deterministic and stochastic components 305
5.9.3 Fatigue prediction in the frequency domain 305
5.9.4 Wind simulation 307
5.9.5 Fatigue cycle counting 308
5.10 Hub and low-speed shaft loading 309
5.10.1 Introduction 309
5.10.2 Deterministic aerodynamic loads 310
5.10.3 Stochastic aerodynamic loads 311
5.10.4 Gravity loading 312
5.11 Nacelle loading 312
5.11.1 Loadings from rotor 312
5.11.2 Nacelle wind loads 315
5.12 Tower loading 315
5.12.1 Extreme loads 315
5.12.2 Dynamic response to extreme loads 316
5.12.3 Operational loads due to steady wind (deterministic
component) 318
5.12.4 Operational loads due to turbulence (stochastic component) 319
5.12.5 Dynamic response to operational loads 322
5.12.6 Fatigue loads and stresses 323
5.13 Wind turbine dynamic analysis codes 325
5.14 Extrapolation of extreme loads from simulations 331
5.14.1 Derivation of empirical cumulative distribution function of
global extremes 331
 CONTENTS xi

5.14.2 Fitting an extreme value distribution to the empirical

distribution 332
5.14.3 Comparison of extreme value distributions 337
5.14.4 Combination of probability distributions 338
5.14.5 Extrapolation 339
5.14.6 Fitting probability distribution after aggregation 339
5.14.7 Local extremes method 340
5.14.8 Convergence requirements 341
References 342
Appendix A.5 Dynamic response of stationary blade in turbulent wind 345
A5.1 Introduction 345
A5.2 Frequency response function 345
A5.2.1 Equation of motion 345
A5.2.2 Frequency response function 346
A5.3 Resonant displacement response ignoring wind variations along the
blade 347
A5.3.1 Linearisation of wind loading 347
A5.3.2 First mode displacement response 347
A5.3.3 Background and resonant response 348
A5.4 Effect of across wind turbulence distribution on resonant
displacement response 349
A5.4.1 Formula for normalised co-spectrum 351
A5.5 Resonant root bending moment 352
A5.6 Root bending moment background response 354
A5.7 Peak response 355
A5.8 Bending moments at intermediate blade positions 358
A5.8.1 Background response 358
A5.8.2 Resonant response 358
References 359

6 Conceptual design of horizontal axis wind turbines 361

6.1 Introduction 361
6.2 Rotor diameter 361
6.2.1 Cost modelling 362
6.2.2 Simplified cost model for machine size optimisation: an
illustration 362
6.2.3 The NREL cost model 365
6.2.4 The INNWIND.EU cost model 367
6.2.5 Machine size growth 367
6.2.6 Gravity limitations 369
6.2.7 Variable diameter rotors 369
6.3 Machine rating 370
6.3.1 Simplified cost model for optimising machine rating in
relation to diameter 370
6.3.2 Relationship between optimum rated wind speed and annual
mean 373
6.3.3 Specific power of production machines 373
xii CONTENTS

6.4 Rotational speed 375

6.4.1 Ideal relationship between rotational speed and solidity 375
6.4.2 Influence of rotational speed on blade weight 376
6.4.3 High-speed rotors 376
6.4.4 Low induction rotors 377
6.4.5 Noise constraint on rotational speed 378
6.4.6 Visual considerations 379
6.5 Number of blades 379
6.5.1 Overview 379
6.5.2 Ideal relationship between number of blades, rotational
speed, and solidity 379
6.5.3 Effect of number of blades on optimum CP in the presence
of tip-loss and drag 380
6.5.4 Some performance and cost comparisons 381
6.5.5 Effect of number of blades on loads 385
6.5.6 Noise constraint on rotational speed 386
6.5.7 Visual appearance 387
6.5.8 Single bladed turbines 387
6.6 Teetering 388
6.6.1 Load relief benefits 388
6.6.2 Limitation of large excursions 389
6.6.3 Pitch-teeter coupling 390
6.6.4 Teeter stability on stall-regulated machines 391
6.7 Power control 391
6.7.1 Passive stall control 391
6.7.2 Active pitch control 391
6.7.3 Passive pitch control 396
6.7.4 Active stall control 397
6.7.5 Yaw control 397
6.8 Braking systems 398
6.8.1 Independent braking systems: requirements of standards 398
6.8.2 Aerodynamic brake options 399
6.8.3 Mechanical brake options 400
6.8.4 Parking versus idling 400
6.9 Fixed-speed, two-speed, variable-slip, and variable-speed operation 400
6.9.1 Fixed-speed operation 401
6.9.2 Two-speed operation 401
6.9.3 Variable-slip operation (see also Section 8.3.8) 403
6.9.4 Variable-speed operation 403
6.9.5 Generator system architectures 406
6.9.6 Low-speed direct drive generators 406
6.9.7 Hybrid gearboxes, medium-speed generators 410
6.9.8 Evolution of generator systems 410
6.10 Other drive trains and generators 411
6.10.1 Directly connected, fixed-speed generators 411
6.10.2 Innovations to allow the use of directly connected
generators 414
 CONTENTS xiii

6.10.3 Generator and drive train innovations 415

6.11 Drive train mounting arrangement options 419
6.11.1 Low-speed shaft mounting 419
6.11.2 High-speed shaft and generator mounting 421
6.12 Drive train compliance 425
6.13 Rotor position with respect to tower 426
6.13.1 Upwind configuration 426
6.13.2 Downwind configuration 426
6.14 Tower stiffness 427
6.14.1 Stochastic thrust loading at blade passing frequency 427
6.14.2 Tower top moment fluctuations due to blade pitch errors 428
6.14.3 Tower top moment fluctuations due to rotor mass imbalance 429
6.14.4 Tower stiffness categories 430
6.15 Multiple rotor structures 430
6.15.1 Space frame support structure 430
6.15.2 Tubular cantilever arm support structure 432
6.15.3 Vestas four-rotor array 432
6.15.4 Cost comparison based on fundamental scaling rules 433
6.15.5 Cost comparison based on NREL scaling indices 433
6.15.6 Discussion 434
6.16 Augmented flow 435
6.17 Personnel safety and access issues 435
References 437

7 Component design 441

7.1 Blades 441
7.1.1 Introduction 441
7.1.2 Aerodynamic design 442
7.1.3 Practical modifications to optimum aerodynamic design 443
7.1.4 Structural design criteria 444
7.1.5 Form of blade structure 444
7.1.6 Blade materials and properties 447
7.1.7 Static properties of glass/polyester and glass/epoxy
composites 451
7.1.8 Fatigue properties of glass/polyester and glass/epoxy
composites 457
7.1.9 Carbon fibre composites 468
7.1.10 Properties of wood laminates 471
7.1.11 Material safety factors 473
7.1.12 Manufacture of composite blades 473
7.1.13 Blade loading overview 478
7.1.14 Simplified fatigue design example 486
7.1.15 Blade resonance 495
7.1.16 Design against buckling 500
7.1.17 Blade root fixings 506
7.1.18 Blade testing 508
7.1.19 Leading edge erosion 509
7.1.20 Bend-twist coupling 511
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