n l y

Electrical Actuators
e o
o s
u r p
y P DR. SHANTIPAL S. OHOL,

t u d Associate Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department,

S
In-Charge Centralized Robotics & Automation Lab

r
Faculty coordinator Robot Study Circle ,

o
College of Engineering , Pune – 411 005.

F
 n l y
Content
e o
1. Actuators

o s
2.
3.
Types of Actuators

u r p
Types of Electrical Motors
1.
2.

y P
DC Motor
AC Servo Motor

d
3. Induction Motor
4. BLDC Motor

St u4.
5. Stepper Motor

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

or 5. Digital-to-Analog Conversion

F 6. Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data

 Actuators
n l y
e o
They convert the electrical energy into meaningful mechanical work

Mechanical output can be rotational or linear

o s
(straight line)

Motors provide rotational motion

u r p
P
Electromagnets provide linear motion

dy
Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a
change in a physical parameter

t u
The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)

S
r
An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity into

o
some alternative form

F
An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier may be
required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator
 Parts of Robotic System
n l y
e o
Locomotion system

o s
Sensory devices for feedback
Sensor Data processing unit
u r p
Control system
End actuators
y P
u d
Power supply system

t
r S
Fo
 n l y
Actuators
e o
Mechanism

o s
p
Logical

r
Signal
Signal Processing Electric Hydraulic

u
& Amplification Pneumatic Final Actuation
Element

y P
t ud Actuator

S
Sensor

o r
F
Types of Actuators
n l y
e o
s
1. Electrical actuators

o
◦ Electric motors http://tbn2.google.com/images?q=tbn:7loeepr6ovfJLM:http://www.fwmurphy.co.uk/images/RP23xx_solenoid_medres.jpg

p
◦ DC servomotors

r
◦ AC motors

u
◦ Stepper motors
◦ Solenoids

2.
◦
y P
Hydraulic actuators
Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal

3.

u d
Pneumatic actuators
◦

t
Use compressed air as the driving force

r S
Fo
 Stepper motor and
n l y
Servomotor
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
Servo
Motor
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
ELECTRICAL MOTOR
n l y
e o
ELECTRICAL MOTOR in general is an
o s
electro-mechanical device that
converts energy from electrical
u r p
y P
domain to mechanical domain.
Based on the type of input we have

d
classified it into single phase and 3

u
phase motors. Among 3 Phase

t
induction motor and synchronous

S
motors are more widely used.

r
Fo
Motors are of various kinds
n l y
e o
✓AC Motors : Not used much in robotics
o s
Asynchronous / Induction &

u r p
Synchronous

y P
✓DC Motors : Finds extensive general use
Shunt, Series Compound, Separately excited, PMDC

u d
✓Stepper Motors : For controlled rotation

t
r S
Fo
✓Servo Motors : For controlled rotation

10
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
11
DC Motors n l y
e o
As the name suggests, a
o s
motor which uses a DC
(Direct Current) power
u r p
y P
Can run in both directions
Speed Controllable

t u d
r S
Fo
DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 12
DC Motor Working n l y
e o
DC MOTOR

o s DC MOTOR

1
V DC + +

A
-

u r
V DC
p A
-

P2

2
dy
Direction of rotation controlled by polarity of current
/ voltage

St u
Speed of rotation controlled by average energy

o r
(power) fed to the motor

F DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 13

 n l y
DC Motor Specifications
e o
o s
Operating Voltage : Recommended voltage for powering the motor

r p
Operating Current : Current drawn at a certain load on the shaft

u
Stall Current : Maximum current drawn, when motor not allowed to
rotate

y P
Stall Torque : Rotation force needed to hold the motor in stall condition

t u d
r S
Fo
14
 n l y
DC Motor Characteristics
e o
Free running torque & current are ideally zero
o s
r p
Increased load implies, increased torque, current drawn & power
consumption

u
velocity & torque

y P
Power supplied by a motor is the product of output shaft’s rotational

u d
DC Motors are inherently high–speed, low-torque devices

t
S
Using gears, the high speed of the motor is traded off into torque

r
Fo
15
DC Motor Characteristics Cont…n l y
e o
Zero speed at
maximum load (stall
o s
100%

p
90%

torque)
r
80%

u
POWER
70%

P
Highest speed while 60%

free running (zero

y
50%
LOAD

d
40%
load)

u
30%

t
Highest power at half 20%

S
speed & half load 10%

r 10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Fo SPEED ------>

DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 16

– T characteristics y
n l
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo Speed- torque characteristics of DC motors
 Simple Direction Reversal n l y
e o
o s
p
MG3 DC MOTOR U5

r
2 1 NC1

A
-

+
COM1 V3

u
NO1
V DC

P
NC2
COM2
NO2

y
A

S1

t u d B

Relay_DP DT_nb

r S
S1 “off” Motor rotates in the default direction

Fo
S1 “on” Motor rotates in the opposite direction

DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 18

Electronic Direction Control
n l y
H – Bridge Circuit Diagram
e o
o s
VCC

u r p
y P DC MOTOR

d
Q1 Q3
2

2
NOT GA TE NOT GA TE

u A
2 1
-

t +
Q2 Q4

S
L R
1

1
o r
F GND

DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 19

 H – Bridge Working
n l y
VCC VCC

e o
Q1
ON
DC MOTOR
ON
Q3

o
Q1

s OFF
DC MOTOR
ON
Q3
2

2
NOT GA TE NOT GA TE NOT GA TE NOT GA TE

A
2 1 2 1
-

+
r
Q2 Q4 Q2 Q4
L R L R
1

1
u
OFF OFF ON OFF
0 0 1 0

y PVCC
GND
VCC
GND

t
ON

u d DC MOTOR
OFF OFF
DC MOTOR
OFF

S
Q1 Q3 Q1 Q3
2

2
NOT GA TE NOT GA TE NOT GA TE NOT GA TE
A

A
2 1 2 1
-

+
r
Q2 Q4 Q2 Q4
L R L R
1

1
OFF ON ON ON

o
0 1 1 1

F 20
GND GND
 H-bridges
n l y
the simplest, reversible drive circuit is the H-Bridge
e o
o s
u r p Closed
switche
s
Polarity Effect

y P A1 & A2 forward
motor spins
forward

d
motor spins
B1 & B2 reverse backwar

u
d

S t A1 & B1 brake
motor acts as
a brake

o r None free
motor floats
freely

F DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 21

 n l y
DC Motor Speed Control
e o
Operating Voltage is kept constant
o s
r p
Reducing Operating Voltage will reduce speed of rotation but also the
output torque & power

u
torque

y P
A trick is done to achieve speed control without sacrificing the output

d
Instantaneous Operating Voltage is kept constant, but it’s average value

u
is reduced

S t
o r
F22
DC Motor Speed Control Circuit
n l y
CONTROL SIGNAL

e o
o s
p
VOLTAGE

r
CONTROL
CIRCUIT DC MOTOR

1
+

OPERATING
VOLTAGE

y P A

d
-

2
t u
Input is the operating voltage & control signal
S
o r
Output is a part of the operating voltage depending
upon the control signal
F DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 23
 DC Motors
n l y
Construction very similar to a DC generator
The dc machine can operate bath as a generator and a motor.

e o
electrical power and the output is mechanical power.
o s
When the dc machine operates as a motor, the input to the machine is

r p
In fact, the dc machine is used more as a motor.

u
DC motors can provide a wide range of accurate speed and torque control.

P
Principle of operation – when a current-carrying conductor is placed in
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force., F = Bli

y
t u d
r S
Fo Eg. Gas turbine, diesel engine, electrical motor

DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 24

 DC Motors
n l y
• Separately Excited Motors
e o
s
Field and armature windings are either connected
o
separately.

•Shunt Motors
u r p
P
Field and armature windings are connected in parallel.

y
t u d
• Series Motors
Field and armature windings are connected in series.

r S
• Compound Motors

Fo Has both shunt and series field so it combines features of

series and shunt motors.
25
Dr S. S. Ohol, College of Engineering Pune.
Comparisons of DC Motors
n l y
e
Shunt Motors: “Constant speed” motor (speed regulation is veryo
o
good). Adjustable speed, medium starting torque.
s
p
Applications: centrifugal pump, machine tools, blowers fans,
reciprocating pumps, etc.

u r
y P
Series Motors: Variable speed motor which changes speed drastically
from one load condition to another. It has a high starting torque.

t u d
Applications: hoists, electric trains, conveyors, elevators, electric cars.

r S
Compound motors: Variable speed motors. It has a high starting
torque and the no-load speed is controllable unlike in series motors.

Fo
Applications: Rolling mills, sudden temporary loads, heavy machine
tools, punches, etc

Dr S. S. Ohol, College of Engineering Pune. 26

 Permanent Magnet DC motor
n l y
e o
o s
Widely used in low power application
Field winding is replaced by a permanent magnet

r p
(simple construction and less space)

u
y P
No requirement on external excitation
Limitation imposed by the permanent magnet

t u d
themselves such as demagnetization and overheating)

r SEquation Ea = Kadm becomes Ea = Kmm

Fo
Brushless DC (BLDC)
n l y
o
A motor converts supplied electrical energy into mechanical energy. Various
types of motors are in common use. Among these, brushless DC motors (BLDC)

e
feature high efficiency and excellent controllability, and are widely used in many

motor types.
o s
applications. The BLDC motor has power-saving advantages relative to other

u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo Operation of the Brushed DC Motor
Courtesy - https://www.renesas.com/
Torque-Speed Curve of a
n l y
DC Servomotor and Load Torque Plot
e o
o s
Torque, T
Stepper
AC Servo
u r p
Load

DC Servo

y P
t u d
r S Operating
Points

Fo Speed, ω
 n l y
Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors
e o
Brushless DC Motors are a type of synchronous motor
o s
frequency
◦ no slip

u p
◦ magnetic fields generated by the stator and rotor rotate at the same

r
P
Available in single-phase, 2-phase, and 3-phase configurations

y
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
BLDC Motor Stator
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
BLDC Motor Rotors
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
Hall-Effect
e o
o s
If a current-carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field, the magnetic

p
field exerts a force on the moving charge carriers, tending to push them

u r
to one side of the conductor, producing a measurable voltage difference
between the two sides of the conductor.

y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
Hall-Effect Sensors
e o
o s
Need 3 sensors to determine the position of the rotor

r p
When a rotor pole passes a Hall-Effect sensor, get a high or low signal,
indicating that a North or South pole

u
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e
Transverse Sectional View of Rotoro
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
Commutation Sequence
e o
Each sequence has
o s
p
◦ one winding energized positive (current into the winding)

r
◦ one winding energized negative (current out of the winding)
◦ one winding non-energized
u
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
Torque-Speed Characteristic
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
AC servo motors
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
P
ELECTRICAL MOTOR in general is an electro-mechanical device that converts
energy from electrical domain to mechanical domain. Based on the type of

y
input we have classified it into single phase and 3 phase motors. Among 3

t u d
Phase induction motor and synchronous motors are more widely used.

r S
Fo
 Construction n l y
e o
The three basic parts of an AC motor are the rotor, stator, and
enclosure.

o s
The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as
electromagnets.

u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
39
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
o
•When a 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical
positions (In certain angle from one another) there is an electrical field

e
s
generate.

p o
•Now the rotating magnetic field rotates at a certain speed, that speed is

r
called synchronous speed. If an electromagnet is present in this

P u
rotating magnetic field , the electromagnet is magnetically locked with
this rotating magnetic field and rotates with same speed of rotating
field.

dy
S t u
•This motor is called as synchronous because the speed of the rotor of
this motor is same as the rotating magnetic field.

or
F
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
It is basically a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is

P
synchronous speed and therefore no intermediate speed is there or in other
words it’s in synchronism with the supply frequency.

y
u d
Synchronous speed is given by

t
r S
Fo
 AC SERVO MOTOR n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
Construction of
e o
Synchronous Motor
o s
u r p
y P
•Normally it's construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction
motor except the fact that the rotor is given dc supply. Now, let us first go

t u d
through the basic construction of this type of motor.

r S
•From the above picture, it is clear that how this type of motors are designed.
The stator is given is given three phase supply and the rotor is given dc supply

Fo
 MAIN FEATURES
n l y
e o
o s
r p
1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting.
u
They require some external means to bring their

y
synchronized.P
speed close to synchronous speed to before they are

u d
2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the

t
supply frequency and hence for constant supply

r S
frequency they behave as constant speed motor
irrespective of load condition

Fo
3. This motor has the unique characteristics of
operating under any electrical power factor
 Working
n l y
e o
•To understand the working of a Synchronous Motor easily, let us consider
only two poles in the stator and rotor. With reference to the figure, the

o s
stator has two poles Ns & Ss. These poles when energised, produces a
rotating magnetic field, which can be assumed that the poles themselves are

p
rotating in a circular manner. They rotate at a synchronous speed and let us

r
assume the direction of rotation to be clockwise. If the rotor poles are at the

u
position shown in the figure, we all know that “Like poles repel each other”.

P
So, the North Pole in the stator repels the north pole of the rotor. Also the
south pole of the stator repels the south of the rotor. This makes the rotor to

dy
rotate in anti-clockwise direction thus, half a period later, the stator poles
interchange themselves, thus making them get aligned with “unlike poles”

u
which attracts each other. I.e. the South Pole of the stator & the North Pole

S t
of the rotor gets attracted and get magnetically interlocked

or
F
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
•At this position the poles Ns attracts S and poles Ss attracts N. These opposite

y P
unlike poles of the rotor & stator start rotating in the same direction as the
stator poles. This makes the rotor to rotate unidirectional and at a synchronous
speed which is the same speed of rotation of the stator poles.

u d
•Thus as the position of the stator poles keep changing with a rapid speed and

t
reversal, the rotor poles also rotate and reverse as same as the stator thus

r S
causing the rotor to rotate at a constant, synchronous speed and in the same
direction.

Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 Principle of Operation
n l y
e o
•Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical inputs are

o s
provided to it. It’s stator winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is
provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is provided with DC supply. The 3 phase

p
stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic

r
flux.

P u
•The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the

dy
frequency to be 50 Hz, from the above relation we can see that the 3 phase
rotating flux rotates about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec.
At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or

t u
S-S) causing repulsive force on rotor and the very next second it will be N-S

S
causing attractive force.

o r
F
 n l y
•But due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due
to attractive or repulsive force and remain in standstill condition. Hence
it is not self starting.

e o
•To overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some mechanical input

o s
which rotates it in same direction as magnetic field to a speed very
close to synchronous speed. After some time magnetic locking occurs

u r p
and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the frequency.

y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 Methods of starting the
Motor n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
•Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could
be either DC SHUNT MOTOR or 3 Phase Induction Motor DC excitation is not

d
fed initially. It is rotated at speed very close to its synchronous speed and

u
after that DC excitation is given. After some time when magnetic locking takes

t
place supply to the external motor is cut off.

r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
•Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type,

P
additional winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill,
relative speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux in large and

y
an emf is induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed

d
approaches synchronous speed , emf and torque is reduced and finally when

u
magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case

t
synchronous is first run as 3 Phase induction motor using additional winding

S
and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.

r
Fo
Applications
n l y
•Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used

e o
for power factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to
behave at any electrical power factor , it is used in power system

o s
in situations where static capacitors and expensive.
•Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is
p
less (around 500 rpm) and high power is required. For power
r
requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost of
u
the corresponding 3 phase induction motor is very high. Hence

y P
these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump,
compressor, rolling mills etc.

d
•These Motors are also used for Voltage-regulation, where a

u
heavy voltage dip/rise occurs when a heavy inductive load in put

t
on/off at the end of the long transmission lines

r S
•These motors are also widely used onboard ships. The ship’s
navigational equipments like Gyro-compass use a special type of

Fo
synchronous motor. They are also used as prime movers for
Visco-Therm or Viscometer, a device for measuring/regulating
the viscosity of the main propulsion engine’s fuel oil
Induction Motor
n l y
(Asynchronous Motor)
e o
o s
r p
Overview of Three-Phase Induction Motor

u
P
Induction motors are used worldwide in many
residential, commercial, industrial, and utility
y
applications.
d
S t u
Induction Motors transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy.

o r It can be part of a pump or fan, or connected to some

other form of mechanical equipment such as a winder,
F conveyor, or mixer.
57
 n l y
Induction Motor
e o
General aspects
o s
induction motor.

u p
• A induction machine can be used as either a induction generator or a

r
• Induction motors are popularly used in the industry

y P
• Focus on three-phase induction motor
• Main features: cheap and low maintenance

d
• Main disadvantages: speed control is not easy

S t u
o r
F 58
 Why induction motor (IM)?
n l y
e o
◦ –Robust; No brushes. No contacts on rotor shaft
◦ –High Power/Weight ratio compared to Dc motor
◦ –Lower Cost/Power
o s
◦ –Easy to manufacture

u r p
◦ –Almost maintenance-free, except for bearing and

y P
other mechanical parts
•Disadvantages

u d
◦ –Essentially a “fixed-speed” machine
t
r S ◦ –Speed is determined by the supply frequency
◦ –To vary its speed need a variable frequency supply

Fo
 Construction
n l y
e o
The three basic parts of an AC motor are the rotor, stator, and
enclosure.

o s
The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as
electromagnets.

u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
60
 Squirrel Cage Rotor
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 Construction (Stator construction)
n l y
o
The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.

s e
The stator core of a National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.

r p o
Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder.
Coils of insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.

P u
Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation. Each
grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an

y
electromagnet. The stator windings are connected directly to the
power source.

t u d
r S
Fo
MZS FKEE, UMP 62
 n l y
Construction (Rotor construction)
e o
o s
The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit.
It can be found in two types:
◦ Squirrel cage

u r p
P
◦ Wound rotor

y
However, the most common type of rotor is the “squirrel cage” rotor.

t u d
r S
Fo
63
 Construction (Rotor construction)
n l y
e o
Induction motor types:

o s
❖ Squirrel cage type:

u r p
➢ Rotor winding is composed of copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and shorted at both end by end rings
➢ Simple, low cost, robust, low maintenance

❖ Wound rotor type:

y P
d
➢ Rotor winding is wound by wires. The winding terminals can be connected to external circuits through slip
rings and brushes.

S t u
➢ Easy to control speed, more expensive.

o r
F 64
Construction
(Rotor construction)
n l y
e o
Wound Rotor

o s
p
Squirrel-Cage Rotor

u r
P
Short circuits all
rotor bars.

dy
S t u
o r
F
/rotor winding

MZS FKEE, UMP 65

 n l y
Construction (Enclosure)
e o
o s
The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets
(or bearing housings). The stator is mounted inside the frame. The

p
rotor fits inside the stator with a slight air gap separating it from
r
the stator. There is NO direct physical connection between the
rotor and the stator.
u
y P
d
Stator
• The enclosure also protects the electrical

S t u
and operating parts of the motor from
harmful effects of the environment in which
the motor operates. Bearings, mounted on
Rotor

Air gap

o r
the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to
turn. A fan, also mounted on the shaft, is

F used on the motor shown below for cooling.

66
 Construction (Enclosure)
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
67
 Nameplate
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
68
Rotating Magnetic Field n l y
e o
When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3 phase voltage supply, 3
flux in the stator.
o s
phase current will flow in the windings, which also will induced 3 phase

called as Rotating magnetic Field

Synchronous speed: speed of rotating flux
u p
These flux will rotate at a speed called a Synchronous Speed, ns. The flux is

r
y P
t u d ns =
120 f
p

r S
o
Where; p = is the number of poles, and

F f = the frequency of supply

69
 n l y
Principle of Operation
e o
Torque producing mechanism

o s
➢When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3 phase voltage supply, 3 phase current

p
will flow in the windings, hence the stator is energized.

r
➢A rotating flux Φ is produced in the air gap. The flux Φ induces a voltage Ea in the rotor
winding (like a transformer).

u
y P
➢The induced voltage produces rotor current, if rotor circuit is closed.
➢The rotor current interacts with the flux Φ, producing torque. The rotor rotates in the

d
direction of the rotating flux.

S t u
o r
F 70
 n l y
Direction of Rotor Rotates
e o
Q: How to change the direction of
o s
rotation?

u
• A: Change the phase sequence of the
r p
power supply.

y P
t u d
r S
Fo
71
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 Stepper Motors
n l y
e o
Used for measured
o s
rotation
Can be held at a
u r p
the shaft
y P
particular position of

u d
Ideal for many

t
autonomous robots

r S
requiring higher
precision

Fo
75
 Stepper Motor
n l y
e o
➢The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the
motor shaft turn a precise distance when a pulse of electricity is provided.

s
➢The stator has eight poles, and the rotor has six poles.

o
p
➢The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one

u r
complete revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move
precisely 15° for each pulse of electricity that the motor receives.

y P
t u d
r S
Fo
 Stepper Motor – Types
n l y
e o
There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:

o s
Permanent magnet
stepper

u r pHybrid synchronous
stepper

y P
t u d Stepper Motor

r S
Fo Variable reluctance stepper

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 Operation of Stepper Motor
n l y
e o
s
➢ Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors.

o
u r p
➢ It rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals.

➢ Stepper motors effectively have multiple toothed electromagnets

y P
arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron.

➢ The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit.

t u d
➢ To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given

S
power.

o r
F
Stepper Motor Working
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
1000 0100
t u d 0010 0001

S
Stepping Sequences for Single Coil Excitation
r
FoOnly one coil is active at a given instant of time

DR S. S. OHOL, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE. 79

 Single Coil Excitation
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
80
 Stepper Motor Working Cont…
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
1100 0110
t u d 0011 1001

S
Stepping Sequences for Double Coil Excitation
r
Fo Two coils active at any given instant of time

81
 Double Coil Excitation
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
82
 n l y
Differences
e o
Single Coil Double Coil
o s
Consumes Less Power
Less Torque generated
u r pConsumes Double Power
More torque generated
Settling time is more

y P Settling time is less

t u d
r S
Fo
Dr S. S. Ohol, College of Engineering
83
Pune.
Interleaved Stepping (Half Step)
n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo
84
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
n l y
e o
➢ Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor.

o s
➢ It operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the
stator electromagnets.

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

u r p
y P
➢ Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate
based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum

t u d
gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.

Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor

r S
➢ Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination

Fo of permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques

to achieve maximum power in a small package size.
 n l y
Stepper Motor Control by Varying Clock Pulses

e o
o s
➢ Stepper motor control circuit is a simple and low-cost circuit,

r p
mainly used in low power applications.

u
➢ The circuit is shown in figure, which consist 555 timers IC as

P
stable multi-vibrator.

y
t u d
➢ The frequency is calculated by using below given relationship:

➢ Frequency = 1/T = 1.45/(RA + 2RB)C Where RA = RB = R2 = R3

S
= 4.7 kilo-ohm and C = C2 = 100 µF.

r
Fo
 Stepper Motor Advantages

n l y
o
➢ The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse. The motors response to
digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to
control.
e
➢ The motor has full torque at standstill.

o s
r p
➢ Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an

u
accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the next.

P
➢ Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.

y
u d
➢ Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor
is simply dependant on the life of the bearing.

t
S
➢ It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly

r
coupled to the shaft.

Fo
➢ A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.
 n l y
Stepper Motor Disadvantages
e o
o s
➢

u r p
Resonances can occur if not properly

➢
controlled.

y P
Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

t u d
r S
Fo
Applications
n l y
o
➢ Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges

e
s
and machine tooling automated production equipment's.

r p o
➢ Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.

u
➢ Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners,

P
samplers, and also found inside digital dental photography, fluid
pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.

dy
➢ Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic

S t u
digital camera focus and zoom functions.

o r
F
Conclusion
n l y
e
which divides a full rotation into a number of steps. o
➢ A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless synchronous motor

o s
➢ Unlike a brushless DC motor which rotates continuously when a

r p
fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step motor rotates in discrete step
angles.

u
P
➢ The stepper motor can be controlled with or without feedback.

y
t u d
r S
Fo
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Motor Controllers
A motor controller might include a manual or
n l y
automatic means for starting and stopping the
motor, selecting forward or reverse rotation,

e o
s
selecting and regulating the speed, regulating

o
or limiting the torque, and protecting against
overloads and electrical faults. Motor
controllers may use electromechanical
switching, or may use power electronics
devices to regulate the speed and direction of
u r p
a motor.

y P
d
The POSYS® 3004 (Designed & Made in Germany) is a PC/104 form factor board dedicated

u
to high performance motion control applications with extensive interpolation functionality. The

t
POSYS® 3004 is designed to control up to 4 axes of servo and stepper motors and provides

r S
hardware linear, circular, Bit Pattern and continuous interpolation which allow to
perform the most complex motion profiles. Update rates per axis do not exist as each axis

Fo
runs in absolute real-time mode simultaneously which makes these boards to one of the best
performing motion controllers for up to 4 axes in the market.
Stepper Motors
n l y
Step angle is given by: : =
360

e o
s
ns
where ns is the number of steps for the stepper motor (integer)

r p o
u
Total angle through which the motor rotates (Am) is given by:

P
where np = number of pulses received by the motor.
Am = n p

dy
Angular velocity is given by: =
2f p
where fp = pulse frequency

u
ns

S t
Speed of rotation is given by: N=
60 f p

o r ns

F
 n l y
Example
e o
o s
A stepper motor has a step angle = 3.6. (1) How many pulses are

p
required for the motor to rotate through ten complete revolutions? (2)

100 rev/min?

u r
What pulse frequency is required for the motor to rotate at a speed of

y P
t u d
r S
Fo
Solution
n l y
=
360
e o
ns

o s
(1) 3.6 = 360 / ns; 3.6 (ns) = 360; ns = 360 / 3.6 = 100 step angles

Am = n p
r p
(2) Ten complete revolutions: 10(360) = 3600 = Am

u
Therefore np = 3600 / 3.6 = 1000 pulses

N=
60 f p
y P
Where N = 100 rev/min:
ns

u d
100 = 60 fp / 100

t
10,000 = 60 fp

r S fp = 10,000 / 60 = 166.667 = 167 Hz

Fo
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
n l y
at periodic intervals

e o
Sampling – converts the continuous signal into a series of discrete analog signals

(previously defined) discrete amplitude levels

o s
Quantization – each discrete analog is converted into one of a finite number of

p
Encoding – discrete amplitude levels are converted into digital code

u r
y P
t u d
Variable Analogue Signal

r S 1001 1101 0101

Discrete
Variables

Fo Time
 n l y
e o
o s
u r p
y P
t u d
r S
Fo