Philosophy
For Kuhn, the addition of epicycles in Ptolemaic
astronomy was "normal science" within a paradigm, whereas the Copernican Revolution was
a paradigm shift
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position
is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation;
scientific theories generalise observations.[199] Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism,
a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of
empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones
being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method.[200][199]
Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated
with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by
observation.[201] Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first
defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism
describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not
generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the
only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with
observation, but theory B were to survive the observation.[202] Popper proposed replacing
verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction
with falsification as the empirical method.[202] Popper further claimed that there is actually
only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and
error,[203] covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics,
philosophy, and art.[204]
Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for
explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only
their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences,
theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored.
[205]
Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion
for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.
[206]
Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a
paradigm, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations
made from its framing. He characterised normal science as the process of observation and
"puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs
when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.[207] Each paradigm has its own
distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting
two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A
paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old
paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is
based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of
the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much
as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism.[208]
Another approach often cited in debates of scientific scepticism against controversial
movements like "creation science" is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a
difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be
restricted to natural explanations.[209] Methodological naturalism maintains that science
requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification.[210]
Community
The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research.
The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review,
through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the
quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.[211]
Scientists
Marie Curie was the first person to be awarded two Nobel
Prizes: Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911[117]
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of
interest.[212][213] Scientists may exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply
scientific knowledge for the benefit of public health, nations, the environment, or industries;
other motivations include recognition by peers and prestige.[citation needed] In modern times, many
scientists study within specific areas of science in academic institutions, often
obtaining advanced degrees in the process.[214] Many scientists pursue careers in
various fields such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.[215][216][217]
Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women have
faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they have in other areas of male-
dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities
and denied credit for their work.[218] The achievements of women in science have been
attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the domestic sphere.[219]
Learned societies
Picture of scientists in 200th anniversary of
the Prussian Academy of Sciences, 1900
Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and
experimentation have existed since the Renaissance.[220] Many scientists belong to a learned
society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related
disciplines.[221] Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific
credentials, or conferred by election.[222] Most scientific societies are nonprofit organizations,
[223]
and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding
regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and
publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act
as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the
collective interest of the membership.
The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the
creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei
Lincei in 1603,[224] the British Royal Society in 1660,[225] the French Academy of Sciences in
1666,[226] the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863,[227] the German Kaiser Wilhelm
Society in 1911,[228] and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949.[229] International scientific
organizations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international
cooperation for science advancement.[230]
Awards
Science awards are usually given to individuals or organizations that have made significant
contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is
considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance,
scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely
regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific
advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.[
