(d

8
Band Theory of Solids and
Semiconducting Materials

1 INTRODUCTION
metals
he free electron theory was successful in explaining various electronic and thermal properties of
nch as heat capacity, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, etc. But
theory fails
nere are several other properties for which this model becomes helpless. For example, this insulators."
give the answer of this question that "why some materials are conductors while somne are
also cannot account for the variation of resistivity with temperature for the latter type of
materials.
urthermore, this theory is unable to explain the properties of semiconductors and many otherT transport
roperties, specially magnetotransport.
The main reason for the failure of the free electron theory was the oversimplified assumption according
Vo which the conduction electron in a metal experiences a constant ora zero potentiaB due to the ion
more attention
39tio3&tan ores and hence, it is free to move throughout the crystal. After the failure of this theory,electric
as given to the motion of an electron in a crystal lattice and its response to an applied field. A
obioolto
Dcussed study on the motion of an electron in the crystal lattice concludes that the potential due to ion
ores is not constant and may change with the position of the electron in the crystal at the same time.
ome potential is also contributed by the other electrons present in the crystal. Thus, the actual nature
2 6 Irobion fthe potential under which an electron moves in the crystal is very complicated.
. 0 ttooehelDuring its motion in the crystal, an electron experiences a periodic potential with period equal to the
attice constant. This periodic potential experienced by the electron forms the basis of the band theory of
olids, According to the band theory of solids, the electrons in crystals are arranged in energy bands which
forbidden regions
re separated by energy gap regions where no wavelike electron orbitals exist. Such conduction
re called energy band gaps. The formation of these bands is due to the interaction of the
lectron waves with the ion cores of the crystal. solids.
In this chapter, we will discuss the classification of solids on the basis of the band theory of
insulators.
Toper attention willbe given to the energy band structure ofconductors, semiconductors, and
Ve will also describe the types of diodes, LED, Solar cell, photovoltaic cell, photo conductivity, and
lall's effect.
2 BASIS OF THE BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
Tocussed study on the thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties of materials suggests that the band
neory of solids is due tothe following reasons:
 Engineering Physics
252 electricity,some are
semiconductors, and otherS 2E 253
good conductors of
temperature, especially, in case ofi
Band Theory of Solids and Semiconducting Materials
Some solids are

semiconducton
(i) resistivity with
(i) Thereis
variation in electron during its motion through
the crystal where y is
the wave function associated with the electron of mass Mand total energy E.
experienced by an is pen The can be given as
potential
(iii) The constant or zero. solution of this equation
motion of an electron in periodic Vr)=etikx (8.2)
of being clear that the
above facts, it is
In view of the
emphasis to establishthe
band theory of solids. The simplest quantumn mechanical
through the crystalis
perfectly
periodic
potential
as (E V) = 2m 2m = E;
(8.3)
cxperienced by an clectron
distribution of potential
in passing
potential is due to the
series of
between the nuclei is a coulomb
humps and
interactionincreases
shown inF
between the
and
at the 00ulasy ifwe consider that the electron is movingthrough one-dimensional periodic potential Vx), then
periodicity of the positive ions situated on he Schrödinger wave equation
can be given as
solids. The
and the periodic charge
distribution arising from the
periodicity of the lattice.
the lattice sites 2m
to the (8.4)
periodicity of the potential is equal [E V)] y= 0
can be given as
V(x) Since the potential is periodic with period equal to the lattice constant a, so Vx)
Vo) = V t a)
AOITOU Thé solution of Eq. (8.4) can be given by the Bloch theorem or Floquet's theorem,
4the solution of Eq. (8.4) are the plane waves sinilar to Eq. (8.2), which
according to which.
are modulated by the function
solution of Eg. (8.4) will be of the
C)having the same periodicity as that of the lattice." Hence, the
Oig/o9form given as
V)=etikx u,(x) (8.5)
uj(*) = u{rt a) (8.6)
:8$ with
The wave functions of the type given in Eq. (8.6) are called the Bloch fuunctions.
Ze 8.3.2 Kronig-Penney Model
noitoubaoa Kronig-Penney model illustrates the behaviour of electrons in a periodicpotential, considering simpiy
Fig, 8.1 One dimensional representation of potential experienced by an electa e-dimensional model of the periodiepotential as shown in Fig. 3.2. In this consideration, the problemn
in a perfectly periodic crystal lattice
is simplified by replacing the periodic potential with asquare well of period (a +b). At the bottom of the
8.3 ELECTRONS IN A PERIODIC POTENTIAL OF ION ntort t oo b well. i.e., for 0 <x<a, the electron is assumed to be very close to the nucleus, where the potential energy
CORES boneu is zero; but outside the well, i.e., for- b<x<0, the potential energy is assumed to be V, Although, this
Ine behaviOur of an electron in periodic potential is described by constructing theelectron uauu approximationdoes not match exactly with the potential offered by the ion cores in the llattice, yet it is
using one-clectron approximation. In this approximation, the total wave function forthe sustemi able to describe the important features of an electron during its motion in the periodic lattice.
from the combination of wave functions, each one of which involves the
the net fieldexperienced by an electron is assumed to be the coordinates of oneelecthu V)
resultant of the field due to the ion0t Vo
the average field due to the charge distribution of all
core can be described by the Kronig Penney model and other electrons. The motion of an electroa
given by Bloch functions. The analysis of the the wave function associated with the e
of Kronig-Penney model and behaviour of an
Bloch theorem yields the followingelectron in the pefiodic late
(1) There are allowed energy bands results:
separated by forbidden regions
(11) The electronic energy or band gaps.
functions E(k) are periodic in the wave vector k. d
8.3.1 Bloch Theorem ios
According to the free electron theory, an
crystal lattice.
a

One-dimensional Schrödingerelectron experiences

wave equation constant
for such
potential (V), throug
electron: given as
Flg. 8.2 One-dimenslonal perlodic potentlaldue to lon cores
The wave functions for the electron can be obtained by solving the Schrödinger wave equation for
+
Zm (E -VJr=0 the regions 0<r<aand b <x<0.
 Engineering Physics Band Theory of Solids and
254
Schrödinger wave cquations for these regions are
given as
sin Ca
Semiconducting Materials 255
+ cos a= cos Ka
P
+
2m Ey=0 for 0 <x<a (8.10)
where P Ma 67

2m -b<x<0
and
+ (E- V)y=0 for otthe and 2 mE (8.10 a)
have the form of a plane wave, nodulated by the
The solutions of these equations
lattice. The actual Bloch solutions aregiven as
V(x) = ur) exp(# ikr)
periodicity of t) Here. m is the
mass of the
ENERGY BANDS
electron

(a + b). 93.3 ALLOWED

where u,(r) is a periodic function with period allowed energy levels (bands) of an electron in a periodic potential of ion cores can be obtained by
In order to derive the relation for the allowed values of electron energies during the mo
electron in the lattice, Kronig-Penney assumed that the proper interpretation of Eq. (8.10).
Onthe left-handside this eguation, there is cos aa, whose values lies between +1 and -1. It means
(i) the energy of the electron (i.e., E) is less than V. that this equation is satisfied only for those values of aa for which its right-hand side lies between +l and
(i) the solutions of Schrödinger wave equations are the Bloch functions, and
Such values of aa, therefore, represent the allowed solutions, while the other values of aa are not
(ii) the wave functions and their first derivaties are continuous throughout the crystal latien alowed. Figure 8.3 shows the oscillatory curve which is the plot of the left-hand side of Eq.(8.10) (i.e.
.1
l. ola) + cOs aa) versus aa. The limits of +l and -1 imposed by cos aa are represented by the
vertical dashed lines. The allowed and the forbidden bands are also represented between these two limits.
Allowed band by shaded and unshaded regions, respectively.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the plot shown in Fig. 8.3.
Forbidden band oinoiN ) In the energy spectrum of an electron, there are alternate regions of allowed and forbidden energy
bands.

-Free electron
parabola

Allowed
Forbidden

Sin aa Alowed
2 +cos aa - -

Forbidden

E Allowed
Ag 8.3 Plot of P(sin oa/aa) + cos aa Sorbidden
yersus aa, showing the alloweu Allowed
(shaded) and forbidden energy
They further assumed that
the regions -4n -2n - 2
Kat
3T

finite; when Vtends to o, b product of the height and the width of the V, ren
potential barriergoverned
the relation tends to zero. The Plot between enerey and Ka showing the free electron parabola with
permissible values of electron energies are S O.4
allowed and forbidden regions
 Engineering Physics Band Theory of Solids and
256
bands incrcases with
the increase in
energy.ni) configuration, all the subshells are filled Semiconducting Materials 257
the energy thíselectronic except 3s'. The
atoms are broughtoutermost
(i) width of
The width of the allowed energy bands decreases with the increase in the binding energy s
(i) The called valence electron. When more number of electron 3s of this
P ’ ,then the bands are compressedinto dis
atomis
energy levels are split to
form an
energy band (i.e., together to form a solid, then
electrons (i.., value ofP). When e g y eouter band, there are two large number of split energy levels closely
If we plot acurve between energy (i.e., E= K'*/2m ) and Ka, then a dashed|line parabola is ob spaced).Inthis regions: one region is occupied by the
band. whereas the other region is either empty or valence electrons known as,
valence occupied by the conductionelectrons (called
as shown in Fig. 8.4. Ka =±1, i.e., when Ka=# nT,
conduction band) as shown in Fig. 8.5(b). Valence band is
also known as the
(Fig. 8.4) occur for cos Whereby the fothnductio conduction band is the is known as the energy highest occupied band,
whereas theband andthe valence bandlowest
the plotare
allowed energyin bands
The Discontinuities unoccupied
energy bands.
shown at the right side of Fig. 8.4. which are separated
n=0,11 band. band gap.
The forbidden energy gap between the

8.4 ENERGY BANDS IN

SOLIDS Solved Examples
ls, 2s, 3s, ... which are occupied Example8.1
In an isolated atom, there are discrete energy levels as ibythe electoy
assumed to be isolated
the atom, as shown in Fig. 8.5(a). If all the atoms of a solid are
levels. When from one anot
he Kronig-Penney model, shoW that ro P<«l,the energy of the lowest energy band is
then they have completely identical electronic schemes of their energy these isolatedag
are brought together to form a solid, various interactions occur between the neighbouring:
this interaction, the higher energy levels are affected considerably, and consequently, the atoms.
Du E=
ma
enerm
of the outer shells are slightly altered without violating Pauli's exclusion principle. Hence. the
energy levels of atoms split into large number of energy levels in Fig. 8.5(b). Since, thert z
as shown Solution
many atoms in a solid, so the separation between the split energy levels is very small. Hence hFrom Eg. (8.10), the energy of the lowest band corresponds to K= + zla. ie.. when
energy levels are almost continuous and are said to form an energy band. nilbe sin ca
+ cos-Ca = 1
There are energy bands in asolid corresponding to the energy levels in an atom, An electron ina
can have only those discrete energies that lie within these energy bands. These energy bands are log
as the allowed energy bands, which are generally separated by some energy gap known as the fotbie If we take only magnitude of the right side, then we get
energy bands or not allowed energy bands. Energy band occupied by the valence electrons is knoNM: P
the valence band, and the energy band which is empty or occupied by the conduction electrons is kas (sin aa) =1-cos aa
as the conduction band.
+ cos a = ±1
Electron
energy Empty Conduction band la
3s energy
Electron
3s
-Forbidden band 2P
2 3s' filled Valance band
or
OLa sincos-2 sire
3p° filled For P<<1,we can write
2

3s filled P
=tan|
1s
Or P
1s filled
(a) 2
Fig, 8.5 (a) (b)
Electrons of an isolated atom in bands Or
2P
formed due to the interaction betweendiscrete energy levels and (b) energy
different sodium atoms in a Sou
In order to clarify the From Eq. (8.10 a), we
ofsodi
crystal. This crysta! has concept
many
of valence band and
closely an exampleas
conduction band, let us take referred know that
lattice. Each sodium atom has eleven packed sodium atoms, to 2mE
electrons with electronic which is
usually
ls2, 2s2,2p, and
configuration
 Band Theory of Solids and
258
Engineering Physics
A6.2 Insulators Semiconducting Materials 259
insulator ifit
2F 2mE
of
solidsbehaves as satisfies the
nunmber of valence electrons per following conditions:
two
Aclass even atom and
has
() it valencebandI and the conduction band are
P ()the diagram of insulators is given in Fig. separated by alarge energy gap
E= 8.7. compared
due to the large band gap, with kT.
conduction Actually,
2ma Theband fromthe valence band to the
jump band. In
koundtightlyto their parent atoms. Forr example, in case of glass, theinsulators, completelyelectrons
the isvalence
valence band filled at
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS cannot
between the
electrons are
8.5 thre band gap valence band and the conduction band
solids are broadly Classified into following Kand energy
Anexternalelectric field cannot provide this amount of energy to an is of the order of 10 eV.
On the basis of the forbidden energy gap,and (iii) semiconductors. ategoni no electron in solid.
(i)conductors (metals), (i)
insulators,
can be explained by the concept of energy band.
insulators because free electrons are available to
olds behave as insulators are those solids which have full conduct electricity.Therefore, such
Hence, we can
The clectrical properties of the materials Depen that the valence band and an empty conduction
and the width of forbidden bands so Imponconclude energy band gap between the valence band and the conduction band. band
on the nature of band occupation by electrons discussed below. withalarge
said class of solids are
characteristics of above
8.5.1 Conductors (Metals) oiateda Energy
In case of conductors, there is no forbidden gap between the valence band and the conduction band Conduction band
It is observed that the valence band overlaps with the conduction band in metals as shown in Fig. &6
There are sufficient number of free electrons, available for electrical conduction. Since: conit Forbidden
band and valence band overlap in case of metals, so the electrons from valence band freely ent energy gap
conduction band. Most important point in conductors is that due to the absence of forbidden gap betua
the conduction band and the valence band, there is no chance for the presence of holes. Hence. the oil
current in conductors is simply due to the flow of electrons only. Valence band

Fig. 8.7 Conduction band and valence band in insulators

Energy IAIIIIIII 8.5,3 Semiconductors

Conduction band
LLLLLLLLNLLLLLL.
| Overlap hcase of semiconductors, the energy band gap (forbidden gap) between the filled valence band and the
empty conduction band is small as compared to the insulators and more as compared to the conductors.
Valence band Usually, this energy bandgap is of the order of leV. Energy band structure of semiconductorsis shown in
the
Ig 88. Germanium and silicon are the common examples of semiconductors. In germanium,
Fig. 8.6 Conduction band and valence band in conductors [>>4oitiden energy gap is 0.7 eV, whereas in case of silicon, it is 1.1 eV. Due to the smal energy ban
For further discussion, let us consider the example of sodiunm which bas electronic configuration Derween the valence band and the conduction band, the electrons of valence band can be themaly
this configuration, it is clear that Ls. 2s. 2n bands in sodium are completely ileto the conduction band, where they are able to conduct small curent on apphcatton of elecuie
1S,S,4p, 3s".From At 0K temperature. a semiconductor behaves as an insulator, but at roOm temperatue,
electron and can accommodate one more electron. Thus, e crystal.
outer uie
Wme outemoSt
valence band is(3s)
half-filled. Underone
band has only
the influence of external electric field, electrons of valence ban5semiconductor has the following peculiar properties:
freelyto )Apartially filled conduction band
acquire sufficient kinetic energy to move towards the conduction band, where they can move
participate in the process of conduction. 0) Apartially filled valence band
bands
Thus, we can conclude that in conductors,there is overlapping between valence: and conduction (m) Avery
Hence, valence band itself behaves as the conduction band. Due to this reason, metals in general 8.6
narrowenergy band gap ( 1 eV)
high electrical conductivity. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS semiconductors,
In intrinsic
Natural pure form of a semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor.because the
in such materials,
conductivity is mainly due to the
thermally generated
charge carriers,
 EngineeringPhysics
Band Theory of Solids and
260
generated due tothe
thermal
excitation. The electrons reaching
vacancies or holessin the valence the condu electrons escape from the
Whendeficiency known as hole covalent
as shown in bond, each
Semiconducting Materials
electron leaves behind an empty
261
electron-hole pairs are
band, dueto
leave cqual number of cqual to the number of
thermal excitation free clectronsisalways fholes, band (inint electron
carriers. Thus, an
electron-hole
Fig 8.9(b). In the
pair is generated on conduction process, holes alsospaceact asor
semiconductor). The number
of Current
strong
centre of attraction for an electron
(because breaking
holes behave as
a covalent bond. Since a hoie is
a attracts an electron from the
hole to reconstruct the broken neighbouring atom fill it. When the positively charged particles),
Energy wgsib bad DOsition
covalent bond, a hole is created at the electron jumps into the hole
the motion off electron is also initial
the
electron. Thus, position of
and holes move in opposite regarded the motion of hole in the opposite jumping
as the
These electrons directions under the direction.
Conduction band
+Free electrons
Inthis way, the
electrons
current constituted in
and holes.
semiconductors is not only dueinfluence of
to electronsexternal electric field.
but also due to both
1eV, Forbidden energy gap
O tHoles
07 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
conductivity ofintrinsic
Valence band
Theelectrical
impurity atom
semiconductors can be increased by adding smallimpurity (generally,
for 10 atoms off semiconductor). The process
l of adding impurities to
valence band in semiconductore T mpuoningand the impurity which is added is known as dopant. semiconductors is
Fig., 8.8 Conduction band and kiotomsis known as doped or extrinsic semiconductor. The added The semiconductor added to the
Intrinsic Semiconductors sho impurity may be pentavalent
8.6.1 Current Conduction in or trivalent. Afew suitable pentavalent impurities are phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, etc.,
whereas
mechanism in intrinsic
conduction semiconductors, let us take valent elements are boron, aluminium, gallium, etc. Depending on the added impurity
In order to describe the current elements in pure
nord um The clectronic configurationof gernanum is isi, 2s, 2p°, 3s 3p 3d" +miconductors,
electrons. Thus, a germanium atom has fou
the extrinsic semiconductors are of the folowing two types:
which shows that the outermost orbit contains four (i) Donor or N-type semiconductor
electrons. i.e. it is a tetravalent element. Each of the four valence electrons in a germanium atomis
() Acceptor or P-type semiconductor
with the valence electrons of four adjacent germanium atoms making four electron pairs as sho
Fie 8.9/a). Hence, all valence electrons of each germanium atom are used to form covalent bond w 8.7.1 Donor or N-type Semiconductor
thetr neghbouring atoms and no electron is free to participate in the process of condtuction, partici When apentavalent atom of group V(having ive valence elcctrons) such as phosphoras, arsenie or
0K In this wav pure germanium behaves as an insulator at OK.As the temperature needses, Y antimony is added to a pure semiconductor, then the resulting
extrinsic semiconductor is known as the
electrons acquire sufficient energy to break their covalent bond and become free to participate in donor or N-type semiconductor.
conduction process. Such electrons are known as free electrons or conduction electrons,o2 If a small amount of phosphorus is added to the germanium crystal, then four of its ive valence
electrons form covalent bonds with the four neighbouring germanium atoms. The fifth valence electron
Temains loosely bound to its nucleus as shown in Fig. 8.10(a). Thus, each impurity atom donates a free
(+4 +4 +4
Free'
Germanium Lelectron Conduction band
Hole +4)
atoms

+4 +4)
Donor
+4 +5)
Valence Valence
Energy band gap level

electron electron Impurity -Fifth valence

atom electron of
+4
" 44 impurity atom
+4 +4|" +4
+4 Valence band/

(a) (b
Flg. 8.9 (a) two-dimenslon81n
Two-dimensional representation of crystal and (b) rentavalent impurity in Ge crvstal and (b) energy band diagram of N-type semiconductor
represention of germanium withgermanium
an
electron-hole palr
 Band Theory of Solids and
Engineering Physics
impurityatom, it is known as the acceptortype impuritylarge has Semiconducting
number of positive charge carriers Materials
263
262
semiconductor. Due to this tendencyof
donorimpurity
called
is N-type donor impun
semiconductor
containing
knownas P-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
(holes), and therefore, it
clectronto the semiconductor which has
Such an extrinsic carriers (electrons). requires small but definite amount of
becatse: is
8.7.3 Conductivity of Semiconductor Materials
energyenergy veryto destmg
conduction mechanism in a
The loosely
charge
has negative bound electron ofimpurity atomconduction process. Thhisamount ofe
in the The energy level is The
conductivityis given by only one
semiconductor is
type of the chargedifferent from a conductor. In case of a
nucleus to participate agitationinsidethe crystal. both electrons and holes. Ifn is the number ofcarriers (i.e., electrons), while in other conductor,
conduccorestpioonn be
itself from its parent provided bythe thermal in the band gap just below the givenby freeiselectrons case, it is
which can be easily electron(fith valence electron)
lies L,and chargee, then the conductivity dueto the electrons given as per unit volume, with its
loosely bound Fig. 8.10(b). mobility
tothe as shown in charge carriers but some holes are o, =ne ,
as the donor level
and is knownsemiconductors, electrons are the majority also presa
holes are known as minority
In N-type generated at room
temperature. These
charge caria Similarly, isthe number ofasholes per unit
ifp volume, with its
(8.11)
which are thermally the electrons. conductivity due to holes is given mobility 4, and charge e, then the
less as compared to
because these are very , =pe H,
P-type Semiconductor electrons) (8.12)
8.7.2 Acceptor or such as boron, Now,theetotal conductivity of
the:e semiconductor
contributed by both electrons and holes
atom of III group (having
When atrivalent
three valence
semiconductor is
semiconductor, thenthe reessulting extrinsic
aluminasium,the acceogalli
known o=0,+ ,=e (nu,t PH,)
will be given as
etc.. is added to apure For intrinsic semiconductors, n =p=n. Thus,
(8.13)
or P-type semiconductor. three valence electr
to the germanium crystal, then
Ifasmall amount of indium is addedthree neighbouring germanium atoms, while the sof indi G= eni (4,t u)
form three covalent bonds
with the
electron. This deficiency of an electron is
fourth
knou bond Conductivity of N-type Semiconductors
(8.14)
not completed due to the deficiency of one charged particle. Since holes are the centre of a
Fig 8.1l(a)]. which behaves as a positively For N-type semiconductors, the expression of conductivity is given as
nearby covalent bonds. When an electro t
for the electrons. therefore, holes attract electrons from G=e(nuet PH)
acovalent bond jumps into a hole, the electron leaves an empty space (hole) at its initial position T
new hole is again filled by another electron from a nearby bond, giving rise to another hole and or where electrons (n) are the majority charge carrierS and holes (p) are the minority charge
carmiers. Since
Thus. a hole moves freely throughout the crystal lattice. n>p, so the previous expression can be written as
O= en,
where n is charge carriers due to the donor impurity, which can be represented as n, Hence, the
Conduction band above
expression will become
4
703 ol o= en He (8.15)
Conductivity of P-type Semiconductors
Energy band gap For P-type semiconductors, the expression of conductivity is given as
Acoeptor

impurity -Deficiency
Jevel G=e (pu, t nu)
of electron
atom Case of P-type semiconductors,majority charge carriers are due to the acceptor type impurity.
(hole)
Therefore,
44)
Valence band
Thus, the above expression is given as
(b)
(a)
O= en, PA (8.16)
Fig 8.11 (a) Trivalent impurity in Ge crystal and (b) energy band diagram of P-typesemlconduc
The trivalent impurity
Solved Examples
has a tendency to accept one electron from a neighbouringgerm Example 8.2
atom to compicte the fourthatomcovalent bond. Therefore, it is called as acceptorTimpurity. Holespartg
in the coduction process
through electrons. The process is very Calculatethe of electrons in copper, assuming that each atom contributes one free electron for
which is suppl1cd by thermal agitation. The energy level
energycorresponding to thethis
required during hole islocatedjustb conduction. (Resimobility
the valence band, which is known as the aceptor level, as shown in Fig 8.11(b). The Semicond
Avogadro's numberstiv=6.025
ity of copper 1.6 x 102cm, atomic weight =63.54, density 8.96 gm cm'.
x 102, and electronic charge = l.6 x10° C)
264
EngineeringPhysics Band Theory of Solids and
Sotution of free
clectrons per unit volume is given as Example8.4 Semiconducting Materials 265
data, thenumber conductivityand hole concentration
According to the given number x density iobno0 Findthe electron (or hole) when 1donor
Avogadro
concentration impurity
atom is
Atomic weight
that
Given
ofholes is 0.13 m?/V.S.
(n) is 1.5 x
10!>/m', silicon hasadded5 tox102810 silicon atoms.
mobility atoms/m, and
6.025 x10 x8.96 = 8.496 x1022 Sotution
63.54 impurityis added to 109 silicon atoms, then
IfIdonor 5x1028 density of ionised donor atoms is
Mobility is given as =5 x10 atoms/m³
N,= 10
ne Hence, hole concentration
where o. is the conductivity.
Ifp is the resistivity, then 2.25x1030
P=
1 5x10!9 5x109
= 0.45 x 10!" holes/m³
1 =4.5 x 1010holes/m3
Hence.
pne Since, n>>p, so conductivity is given as
1
On tvpeexn xu,
=45.98 cm²/V:s = 1.6 x 10-19 x 5 x 10!9 x 0.13
L.6x10>X8.496x10x1.6x10-19
Rerionledles = 10.4 mho/m

Example B.3 8.8 P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are0.37 mNs When P-type and N-type materials are joined in such a way that the crystal structure
remains continuous
and 0.18 mivs, respectively. Ifeach electron and hole densities is equal to 2.5x 10!9/m³, calculat te at the boundry, then P-N junction is formed. Such P-N junctions are frequently used as
fundamental
eiectrical conductivity and the resistivity of germanium. unit in rectification, amplification, switching, and other operations in electronic circuits.
There are
SoButiorn special techniques which are used in the fabrication of P-N ijunction. Popular techniques used insome
the
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given as fabrication of P-N junction are as follows:
() Grown junction
Om =en, (u, +H) mho/m () Diffused junction method
Given that n=p=n,= 2.5 x1019 /m?
(im) Alloy junction
H,=0.37 m²/Vs and u, =0.18 m²/V:s
Therefore,. clectrical conductivity of intrinsic germanium is nntact surface formed between P-type and N-tvpe semiconductors which are suitabiy joined
together is separated by athin junction known as P-N junction diode. P-N junction is usually named as
o=16 x 10-19 x 2.5 x 1019 (0.38 + 0.18)given as asemiconductor
In order to diode because of its peculiar property
= 2.24 mho/m
that it can conduct in one direction only.
Resistivity is given as understand properties
the of P-N junction diode, let us take P-type and N-type

p=
1 1
=0,446 Szm.
sandemimiconduct
norityorscharge carriers as 8.12(a).
Sas shown in Fig. AP-type semiconductor has majority charge carriers as holes
electrons. An N-type semiconductor has majority charge carriers as
o 2.24 electrons and minority charge carriers as holes. Holes and electrons are shown by white and black
CrCles, respectively in Fig.
8.12.
 Band Theory of Solids and
EngineeringPhysics Seniconducting Materials 267
266 processof diffusion, the charge carriers recombine with each other on
junction which is depleted of mobileeither side of the
Electrons majority Duringthe layeris created across the
Holes majority charge carriers P Therefore,a thin charge carriers
chargecarriers
junction. and holes).
treeelectrons the
as shown in Fig. 8.13. This layer is
known as the depletion layer, the
(Le, region, transition region, or simply, the junction region. Although the
space
charge
depletion
region depends on the carrier concentration of P-type and N-type materials, it thickness
is usually ofof the
the
10m).
microns(1.e.,
order of
Behaviour of a P-N Junction under Biasing
8.8.2
P-Type
N-Type -Njunctionis connectedIto an external power supply (potential difference),the junction is said
Whena P- potential difference across the P-N junction can be applied in two ways viz., forward
Electrons minority
Electrons minority Depletion region biased. The biasing.
charge carriers tobee
charge carriers
and reverse
biasing
(a (b)100 slou ForwardBiasing
junction afs.
Flg, 8.12 (a) P-type and N-type semiconductors before díffusion and (b) P-N a
positive terminal of dc source or a batery is connected to P-type semiconductor and the
When the
When the two pieces ofP-typeematerial and N-type material are joined together using special technig terminalis connectedtto N-type semiconductor of a P-N junction as shown in Fig. 8.14(a), the
negative
the P-N jnction is formed. The moment they form a P-N junction, some of the conduction s junctionissaidIto
be forward| biased. Forward bias applied to a P-N junction facilitates the movement
carriers across the junction. Forward biasing reduces the height of potential barrier
from the N-type material diffuse over the P-type material and undergo electron-hole recomhins majority charge
Similarty, the holes of P-type material move to N-type material to combine with the electrons avalal,
of that the available charge can cross the junction easily [Fig. 8.14(b)]. When the charge
in such a way junction, they recombine with their counterparts (1.e., electron with hole and vice versa).
there. This process is known as diffusion across the junction. Due to this diffusion process, avina e oross the of charge
battery is formed across the junction which opposes the further diffusion of charge carriers actos e he number of mobile charge carriers are reduced; but at the same time., same number
due to breaking of covalent bonds near the battery terminal under the infiuence
junction [Fig. 8.12(b)]. carriers are produced the continuity of current flow in the circuit. Thus, we can
The charge carriers maintain
ofappliedemf. junction offers low resistance
8.8.1 Depletion Layer concude that in forward biased junction, the potential barrier is reduced,on the applied forward voltage.
current through it, and the magnitude of current depends
In the process of diffusion, excess electrons in N-region willimmediately cross the junction and combie: to the flow of
with the excess holes of P-region. This process of diffusion of charge carriers across the junction does i as shown in Fig. 8.14(b). Electron reverse current
continue for a long time. It is due to the reason that the electrons ofN-region which move across the juncox
to recombine with the holes of P-region leave positive charges in N-region at the junction side, similut
negative charges are being produced due to the movement ofholes from P-region to N-region.The prsca:
of these charges across the
junction form avirtual battery which stops the diffusion of charge carriers as
the junction. The potential difference established across the P-N junction that is able to restrict ue u
movement of charge carriers across the junction is known as the potential barrier Fig. 8.13). o

N
P
ttyollA
+

mA
Immobile
Immobile positive ions
negative ions
H k P-type
k Ntype >
Hole foward current

(b)
(a) potential
and(b) reductionin the
Flg. 8.14 (a) Forward biasing of P-Njunction
Fig. 8.13 Depletion layer and potential barrier in barrier due to forward
biasing

P-NJuncton
 Band Theory of Solids
Engineering Physics and
268
battery is connected
to N-tvne reverse
Under
biasing,,the potential barrier r
Current conduction, due to the
Semiconducting
increases at the P-Njunction, whichMaterials 269
Reverse Biasing
When the positive
terminal of a de source or a semiconductor, Thus, the majority charge carriers across the offers high
resistance.
junction, is almost zero.
away from the P-N
battery and move reversecurrent increases
suddenly and
diode offers
are attracted towards the negativeterminal ofthe attracted by the positive
are
electronsinthe N-region biasing, current is constituted due to
junction.
terminal battery:and
of Att reversebias: voltage, the
minority charge carriers getalmost negligible resistance.
sufficient kinetic energy to Actually, at this
minority tgy knock out the value
same time, the free this the lkingthe covalent bonds oT P-N type semiconductors of
Under
also
junction.
move away from theminority charge carriers, which are
generated by thermal agitation, feel chRer bre Forward
current
Barrier
voltage electrons
biasing, and current conduction
carriers only. Actually, the
due to these charge carriers is exactly same as it is due to the majoiN
reverse-biasedd forwat
charge carriers in forward biasing. Thus, we can
conclude that in
resistance tothe current flow, and very small junction, potential ba
current flowsSthroud
junction ofters high
is strengthened, minority charge carriers).
the junction (only due to Electron reverse current rtp
Reverse bias voltage

-25 -20 15 -10

Reverse
current
00
2

Forward bias voltage

Break down
voltage
P ins boil
sait obu Fig. 8.16 V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode

8.8.4 Applications of P-N Junction Diode

P-N junction diodes have many applications in electrical and electronics
applications are given as follows:
engineering. Some important
k P-type () P-N junction diode is frequently used in rectification (conversion of ac into dc),
Hole foward current
(ü) it is used in amplification,
(a) (b) (m) it is used for
Fig 8.15 (a) Reverse biasing of P-N junction and (b) variation in potential barrier under reverse bai (v) it is used in switching purposes,
digital circuits, and
) it has important applications in logic
8.8.3 Voltage-Current Characteristics of P-N Junction circuits.
The graph showing the variation of voltage across the junction (along X-axis) and current throughte 8.9 ZENER DIODE
circuit (along Y-axis) is known as voltage-current (V-D characteristics of P-N junction Aiode. Zener
diode is a
characteristics of P-N junction diode is shown in Fig. 8.16. specially designed
breakdown., isoptimised
Under the forward biasing of P-N junction, the potential barrier is reduced. Initially, no curent to Teverse bias and
P-N junction diode, which is properly doped to have a very sharp
to ooperate in breakdown region. These diodes are exclusively operated under
until the barrier voltage is overcome across the P-N of bias voltage, foveot zener diode is conditions and to operate in breakdown region without damage. Circuit symbol
junction.
current increases linearly with the increase in the forward After
voltage an value
likethis ordinary conductor. Incase shown in designed
Ge crystal, when the applied forward voltage
The width of the depletionFig.layer8.l7.across the junction depends on the doping concentration, for heavily
increases up to 3 V, majority charge earriers pasdJunction diode. the depletion layer is
through the junction gain sufficient kinetic energy to remove valencetheelectrons Under reverse biasing, an intense electric feld is
and raise them to the
conduction band. Thus, the forward current
bound to the cy
8.16). ot to cthe pOpplicharedge depletion region
due to which
very small.of covalent
breaking bonds takes place. Thus, alarge number
increases sharply (Fig, 8 carriers formed. These charge carriers give alarge reverse curent.
(electron -hole pairs) are
 Band Theory of Solids and
270
EngineeringPhysics
is used as a safety device, which avoids the
(v) It
Semiconducting Materials
damage in previous
271
application of excessive voltage. instruments due to accidental
N for the calibration of
isused
(v) It voltmeters.
e40 VARACTOR DIODE
diode
symbol of zener diodes are made for their
Flg. 8.17 Circuit IfP-Njunction applications
based on the voltage variable
then these are known as varactor
Characteristics of Zener Diode junction,
the observed that the junction capacitance diodes, varicaps, or
has same
across
voltacaps. capacitance
Current It is expression as is
Voltage
Voltage-current
8.9.1 characteristics ofa zener diode are shown in Fig. 8.18. We can discuss its characte:itor of area A(square metres) and plate separation WV(metres) containingobtained for aof permittivity
the material parallel-plate
given as
e This expression 1S simply
under the following points: similar to an ordinary diode withthe exception that itt has asharp breakdo EA
are
(i) Its characteristics zener breakdown voltage.
C,=
(8.17)
voltage known as the breakdown regions. But usually. it is operated in te Ea (8.16), it is clear that the junction
in forward, leakage, or
When the junction is reverse biased, thencapacitance
(i) It can be operated is not constant but varjes with the annlied
breakdown region (Fig. 8.18). the space charge
width () increases with the increase
the bias voltage. Hence, the Junction capacitance (C) is reduced. Similarly, when the forward bias
eis increased, then the space charge width () is
eed Circuit symbol of a varactor diode is shown inreduced. Hence, the junction capacitance (C) is
Fig. 8.19(a) and its circuit modei under reverse
bias is shown in Fig. 8.19(b).
Zener voltage

Forward voltage
Reverse voltage Knee W
C Rs
(a)
Fig. 8.19 (a) Circuit symbol of varactor diode and (b) circuit model of
Zener current
varactor diode
In Fig. 8.19(b), the resistance R, represents the body (ohmic) series
Fig. 8.18 Voltage-current characteristics of zener diode diode resistance R, shunting C, is large (more than M2) and hence, itresistance of thediode. The reverse
is usually neglected.
During the application of varactor diode where high frequencies are required, the transition capacitance
(11) During reverse biasing, small saturation current flows through it, which remans
until a certain critical voltage, called the breakdown voltage, is reached. Value orus auoud oe as small as possible. It is due to the reason that a diode is driven to the reverse-biased condition
t1S desired to prevent the transmission of asignal. If the transition capacitance is large
voltage depends on the doping concentration of P-type and N-type regions. enough,
(iv) When zener diode is separated in the breakdown region, diode rem hrent
through the
which is to be restrained by the low capacitance of the reverse biased diode will fiow
the voltage across the capacitor.
almost constant for the large charge of the reverse
current. 6.10.1
8.9.2 Applications of Zener Diode Applications of Varactor Diode
Varactor diodes have large number
Due to its peculiar property, zener diode finds electa of applications in electrical and electronic circuits. Some important
numerous applications in the field ofelectrical and
enr'neering. Most important of these are as follows: applications are
() It has as follows:
u, It is used as a voltage
regulator. important
S trequently applications in voltage tuning of an LC resonant circuit.
(i1) It is frequently used as a (n) used
in-self-balancing
(ui) It is used for switching
fixed reference voltage in a
network for biasing: and
comparison It is also
used in some special types of bridge.
amplifiers known as parameric amplifiers.
purposes.
 Band Theory of Solids
and Semiconducting Materials
Engineering Physics shown in Fig. 8.21(a). By
unitis
digit. For example, by activating theall suitable 273
272
EMITTING
Light emitting diodes DIODES
are specially
(LEDs)
designed forward biased P-N junctions When an LED is energis
the desired
6,7, 3,and
4, we can display 5 as shown in activatingFig. the LEDs,combinatiodisplay
we can ns of LEDs, we can
display
8.11 LIGHT 8.21(b). 8,while activating 1,
recombination.
electron-hole pair barrier and hence;
visible light due to the reduces the potential the
it emits
biasing across the P-N junction Under the favourable condition when majority
of t
P-regionelectrons ron
Forward junction.
start crossing the P-N holes there. Similarly, holes from 6
carriers For the with
charge
junction recombine with they
N-region enter P-region,
recombine
electrons.

is released due to
Crosingk
generation of electron-hole pair, certain energy 1S require
recombination of electron-hole pair. If E, is the band
recombination of electron-hole pair
Same amount of energy energy released due to is given as
semiconductor, then the 10 5
the hc
pbrcakó
E=hv=
form of radiation. The corresponding emission wavelengh
energy is emitted in the
This amnount of
4
given by hc (a (b)
E e21 (a) Seven segment LEDS used in display device and (b) display of
liberated energy is used in heatinod. different digits by
semiconductors, it is observed that most of the ko activating suitable combinations of LEDS
In some
insignificant. Gallium Arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) bas
andthe amount of emitted energy is the
which emitted wavelength is given as f) LEDS are used as potential source for optical fibre communication
energy E, = 1.9 eV, corresponding to (in) These are used as fast-speed switches.
hc 6.62 x10*4 x3x108 -m =6500 ¢
E 1.90 x1.6x10-19 () These are rapidly replacing cathode ray tubes in solid-state video displays.
eV and the emitted radiation is 850842 SOLAR CELLS
in visible range. Similarly, the band gap for GaAs is E, = 1.45 band gap, it is possible to obtain oranz
which lies in infrared region. Thus, according to the choice of junction diode able to emit the viste Asuitably designed P-Njunction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy is called solar
emissions. A specially designedP-N
yellow, red, green, and blue vaiy. 1S aiSO Known as solar-energy converter. Asolar cell is simplv a nhotodiode wbioh
radiations when it is forward bjased is shown in Fig. 8.20(a) and its symbolic circuit diagram is gia is operated at zero bias voltage.
in Fig. 8.20(b).

Sunlight
Glass
otiosqe) Metal
ring
oiioiiggA t
(a) (b)
Fig 8.20 (a) Specially designedP-N junction diode or light emitting diode a
(b) circuit symbolof LED
Metal contact
8.11.1 Applications of LEDs
Important applications of LEDs are given below.
(i) Visible radiation produced by LEDs has displayssuchs (a)
(b
important applications in numerical Segmentdig Fl, 8.22 circuit symbol of a solar cell
watches, calculators, instrument panels, telephone,switch boards. etc. Aseven eonematic circuit diagram of asolar cell and (b)
 Band Theory of Solids and
274 Engineering Physics
the constructionnof a solar
ofthe essential requirements in germanium
junctionis in such a direction
So as to repel the Semiconducting Materials
majority carriers.
275
Construction: P-N junction is onesemiconducting
Junction is constructed by using
materials such as
arsenide, ctc, The P-N junction is
packed in a
silicon, cel .This?
esultant
feld
cylindricalmetalpallium arsenida
currentis obtained is known as the photovoltaic
atthe
falls on the
Iflighttfall
surface the P-N
of
potential. The voltage at
junction, minority charge carriers which zero
indium arsenide, cadmium
a glass window on its top so that
light may fall on both
avoid the recombination of generated
P-and N-type materials
electrons and holes in the P-and N-regions,
uniforl.
their thio \container
Vder
Sohe majority
current increases. Since
vA ority current must increase by same
under

electric field
open-ciamount
as the
at the
rcuited conditions, are
minority
current. This
injected
and
the total current must hence, the
renain zero,
verv small
heavily Eor P-and
doped more number
N-type of ofmaterials
the generation of charge
are used.
caies a ve orincidentio
Thus, the use of heavily doped P-and N-regjons gjiV
tnossible only
junction.
if the
Across
retarang
the diode terminals,
a voltage junction reduced increase
is by
in majority
reducing
the
alarge photo voltage. Nickel plated metal rings around P-type layer act as the positive.ou atthe height of the potential barrier is reduced. This constitutes appears
herght just
the photovoltaic emf and barrierof
is of the order
equalto the amount by which
Schematic diaor germanium cell and 0.5 Vfor
as the negative output terminal. Vfor silicon cel.
and the metal contact at the bottom serves aolonitude 0.1
is given in Fig. 8.22(b).
circuit symbol for Photovoltaic emf
cell is shown in Fig. 8.22(a) and its 813.1 Expression
allowed to incident on P-N junction, biased condition, total reverse current
sufficient When the
Working: energy photons
to the of electrons andrmove them fromtheir parent atoms. Hence,photons
valence suitable energy are electron-ho
Under the reverse across a junction diode is given as
junction [Fig. 8.22(a)]. These nei0n-ok
charge and N-region the
of wherethey are separated by astrong potentio
pairs arecariers reachinthe
generated bothdepletion
P-regionregion by diffusion bore . is the short circuit current, which is proportionalItothe light intensity, and I, isthe dark current
(8.19)
thermally generated electron--hole pairs.
carriers (electrons in P-region, holes in N-tci ue tothe
existing there. At the same time, the minority charge iunctios V,
Forthe bias voltage the reverse current dueeto the thermal electron-hole pairs (i.e., I) is
at the junction for their flow across the
are supported by the existing potential barrier current, which is directly pronor l,-l%(1-eeinkr) given as
minority charge carriers across the junction constitute the minority exposed to the light. Using the value of I, in Eq. (8.19), the total reverse current is given as (8.20)
surface area being
to the illumination and also depends on the I=l,+l, (1 - ee/nkT)
8.12.1 Applications of Solar Cells Los nis unity for germinium and 2 for silicon. k is the Boltzmann constant and Tis the (8.21)
absolute
below.
Some important applications of solar cells are given in t
mperature.
Ae we know that the voltage at which zero resultant current is obtained is called the photovoltaic
() Solar cells have been and will remain the best choice for providing electrical power used potential (Vp), now at /=0, Eq. (8.21)gives
operations of satellites and space vehicles.
(ii) Solar cells are used for domestic power supply in remote villages. I,+,(l-e'ren*T) =0
(üi) These are frequently used in electrification of the health-care facilities, irigation, and water supot 1+S= eoelnkT
(iv) Many lighthouses and most buoys are now powered by solar cells.
(v) Solar cell power stations may be approaching economic viability in location where thêy assist
local grid during periods of peak demand and obviate the need to construct a new power statis
nkT
8.13 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
Photovoltaic word itself explains its literal meaning. The word photovoltaic has two parts: photo, aken photovoltaic enf is given as
derived from the Greek phos, which means light, and volt is a measuring unit named after Alessanu
Volta who was the pioneer in the study of electricity. Thus, photovoltaic can literally be translalt (8.22)
light electricity. Photovoltaic cells are generally used for the conversion of light encrgy nto e
at the atomic level. They work on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic efect: In areverse biased P-N junction, there is almost constant reverse saturati
Usually,IJI> except log Is.
I 1,
nkT
for extremelysmall intensities. Hence, Eq. (8.22) can be given as
(8.23)
which is due to the flow of minority charge carriers. If the applied reverse bias voltage e

magnitude, the potential barrier at the junction is also reduced. When potential hill is reduced: suficiAove expression showsthat photovoltaic emf (V) increases logarithmically with illumination causing !,
some majority charge carriers can also cross the junction. Flow of these charge carriers coe
forward current and hence, such a flow reduces the net (reverse) current. Reducing the
(increasing forward current) voltage, particular condition can be obtained at which, reverse dh
thís condition,
be balanced by the forward current, i.e., tlie resultant current is zero. Under
 Band Theory of Solids and
276
Engineering Physics
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITYIN
SEMICONDUCTORS 1.24
um
Semiconducting Materials 277
some1radiations are E
toradiations,
8.14
consequently, its conductivity
When asemiconductor
of is
suitable band
increased. is exposed
gapThis process is known as absorbed
by ita
photoconductivityin semiconducon
photoconductivity, let us start with the presion
germanium.and silicon, energy band gaps are
.72 eV and 1.1
critical wavelength corresponding to these band gaps for Ge eV,
For
(8.25)

understand the phenomena

of
(8.13), Section 8.7.3) The respectwillivbeely1.72
and Si , at room
um temperature.
In order to semiconductor, according to which (Eq. respectively. and 1.13 um,
conductivity(o) for the Impurity on
o= (n 4, tp 4)e electrons
8.14.2 Effect of
Photoconductivity
discussions in preceding sections,.it is clear that
where
n= number of free
p= number of
holes
Fromthe
gapandthe
frequerncy of photons
capable
incidenting
on the photoconductivity
can besemiconductor
of photoconduction
depends on the
material. The energy ofenergy band
electrons photons which
are
reduced by reducing the energy incidenting
,= mobility of free of
Addition whichimpurities in semiconductors
introduces new energy states in the band gap.
reduces the energy band gap.
type impuritiesforbidden
holes energy
u,= mobility of gapregion, Donor and
e= electronic charge andacceptorlevels in the energy gap region as shown in Fig.acceptor
8.23. introduce donor
band gap energy are
allowed to incident on the When light (photons) of suitable
When photons ofenergy morethanthe semiconductor. Absorbed photons break covalent semiconduct
bonds or
to produc: energy
nhotoconduction
to incident on the semiconductor,
is allowedis completed by the following threeelectron-hole
ways: pairs are generated. The process of
absorbed by the
then these photons are grcater than band gap (i.e.. hy
having their energy iCaated electron jumps from the valence band to the conduction band •transition ()1
electronhole pairs. Thus, the photons created thermally. Due to these created charge
carriore
to those
electron holepairs in addition and hence, its conductivity is increased. Danorelectron is excited to jump into the conduction band [transition ()l.
decreased
of the semiconductor is produce elr
photons ofall frequencies) are not able tothe semicondu
R Valence electron is excited to go into the acceptor state [transition (ii)].
It is also observed that all the photons (i.e.,
photon as well as on the energy barnd gap of
hole pais as it depends on the energy of Conduction band
used.
8.14.1 Cut-off Wavelength in an intrinse
E
() TE
photon required to produce electron-hole pair
Donor level
The maximum value of the wavelength of a The minimum energy of a photon required for the
semiconductor is known as the cut-off wavelength. .b
to the forbidden energy gap (E). Thus, the
photoconduction in an intrinsic semiconductor is equal 4 (ii) Acceptor level
by
minimum frequencyv, to cause the photoconduction is given IE,
hv,=E (824)
Valence band

or
Flg. 8.23 Effect of impurity on photoconductivity
is given as lovotorg at
The corresponding maximum wavelength or critical wavelength Out of these three transitions. first occurs in an intrinsic semiconductor, which requires more energy,
hc Maereas second and third occur in extrinsic senmiconductor, where less energy is required to raise the
=E (in eV) Clecton to participate in the process of photoconduction.
1 Eg 8.15 HALL EFFECT
hc When acurrent carryingl Conductor (or semiconductor) is placed in atransverse magnetic feld, a potential
hc (6.62 ×104 J-s) x (3 x10°m/s) dif erence is developed
held. This phenomenon across the conductor in the direction perpendicular to both current
and magnetic
(E,) x(1.6 x10-19 ) is called Hall effect.
8.15.1 Hall
1.24x106 Consider aslab ofVoltage and Hall Coefficient
a material having length, breadth, and thickness l, b,andd,
respectively. This slab of
E, Specimen material is subjected to an external electric field E. along the x-axis and a magnetic field H.
 Band Theory of Solids and
EngineeringPhysics
field Ë. applied along the x-direction
number of charge carriers (
(electrons) per unit Semiconducting Materials 279
be given as volume, then the relation between the
278
The clectric Ifnisthe drift velocity (u) can
driexer
ft vteslocity
shownin Fig. 8.24. e), due to
which electrons acquire a afoN ()
density )aandthe current
alongthe z-axis
as cach of charge
velocity v,experiences a magnetic
electrons,
carries(say
onthe charge Thecharge moving with drift force Fm Perpendin ne
(8.31)
inthe
x-direction.
magnetic fielddinduction
B, , which is given as value of v, in Eq. (8.28), we get
velocityV. andthe Puttingthe
to boththe
Eg
(8.32)
-ev,B.j Thequantity(/ne) is called Hall coefficient for the material or the specimen slab and is represented as
H,
E,
Rñ ne (8.33)
Negativesignis dueto the consideration of the electromcharge. From Eq. (8.32),
++++tt
EH
JB, (8.34)

But J,= Area

X Vy d Q-m³/Wb
specimen (8.35)
Fig. 8.24 Hall effect in a slab of
Hence, (1, 1bd) B, I, B.
electron drifts it downwaries
y-axis. This defiecting force on the expression, B, is in weber/metre and d is in metre
This force acts along the negative
Consequently, lower surface of the slab collects a negative chare In the above applied electric field E_ and Hall electric feld E at
wiokt onota a
the lower edge of the specimen. Fig. 8.24. Thus, an induced electric field called Hall leti Hal Angie: Under the innuence of angle with the x-direction. This angle is known as the Hal
upper surface, a positive charge as shown in difference V, across the positive and the negatie Velocily (u,) Or charge Carriers makes an
field E, is established which causes a Hallpotential electrons and very soon an equilibrium is reack!
angle, which is given as
drifting of
y-axis. This Hall electric field opposes the
between the magnetic force e xon the electun =
due to the establishment of the condition of balance the positive y-axis, and consequentiy, t
E,
electric force eE, along , Hall angle is given as
along the negative y-axis and the acting on the electron wil be zero, 1 or specimen slab of length
velocity acquires a steady value. In this situation, the net force
VylbVål rad
= EH
(8.36)
ebg +ev, xB, =0 E,
(827
which
Eg =-(ü. x5.) nat Mobility: Mobility of charged carriers is defined as the drift velocity per unit applied field,
sGioiTqo (82 Sgiven as
In terms of magnitude, E = V, B
is given as He
For the breadth bof sspecimen slab in the y-direction, Hall electric field E
boqolovabass
Ep or VH- bE onorroudga Puting this value of u_ in Eq. (8.30), we get
where V is known as Hall voltage. 7ailoVlsH ( VH=bu, E, B,
Putting the value of Ey in Eq. (8.29), we get
E bVH -, E, B,
V;=bu, B,
 EngineeringPhysics Band Theory of Solids and
280
Eq. (8.34), we
get Semiconducting Materials 281
E, from
Puttingthe value of Solutton
diode is the ideal one, then the current through
When zener it is given as
br() Vin-Vz
specimen. 1,=
conductivity ofthe
where o is theelectric we get Minimum value of the zener current is given as
Eq. (8.37),
Substituting the value of Ryin 20-12
=9.75 mA
l min) 820
I, B, E,
Eyb d J, Maximum value of the zener current is given as
50-12
Jbd B, E, = 46.34 mÀ
imax) 820
B. When the zener diode offers resistance of 8 2, then

Hence rad-m²/Wb 1, R,+R,

B.
Minimum value of the zener current is given as
8.15.2 Applications of Hall Effect 50-12
=9.66 mA
Some important applications of Hall effect are as follows: Ztmin) 820+8
) It is used to determine the sign of charge carriers. Maximum value of the zener current is
(iü) Carrier concentration can be determined using Hall effect. delsitdo
(iüi) It is used to measure the mobility of charge carriers directly.
roj22i 50 12
= 45.9 mA
"z(max) 820+8
(iv) It is used to determine whether the given material is a metal, a semiconductor, or an insulatar
(v) It is used to measure the conductivity of a given specimen. navge
dBample 8.6
ESolved Examples Ina varactor diode, what will be the ratio of the junction capacitance if the width of the depletion layer
is reduced to half of its initial value.
Example8.5
Solution
Azener diode shown in the following figure has V=12 V. Determine the minimum and the mau
zener current and the output voltage, unction capacitance is given as
(i) when the zener diode is EA
considered to be the ideal one. C,= (1)
(iü) when the zener resistance of the
zener diode is 8 S2. If Wis
R,= 8202 reduced to WI2, then
50V www EA 2EA
to
Cf= WI2 (2)
V From Egs. (1) and (2),
20 12V
Vo
we get
C EA/W 1

ie.,
CT 2EA/ WV 2

C= 2C,
 Band Theory of Solids and
EngineeringPhysics
= 0.5 Vinitially,
Semiconducting Materials 283
282 Giventhat V
p

Example8.7 the gallium. arsenide phosphide

Calculatethe
wavelength of the
emitted light for
having energ i.e.,
0.5 =
e
log U/1)
(1)
eV When =21, then
gap of 2
Solution
light ofenergy band gap E, is given
as nkT log 42)
Wavelength ofthe emitted
e
(2)
hc we get
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2),

Given that E, = 2eV.

6.62x10-34x3x108 = 6206 ¢ 02
0.5 e log 4,/1,)
pkT le
2x1.6x10-19 log

Example8.8 = log (2)

which the short circuit current bein:
photovoltaic emf of a semiconductor in =0.3010
Find the change in the under the influence of light incidenting on it
10 tÉmes of thereverse saturation current 0.5
= 1.66 V
Solution
V, 0.3010
Photovoltaic emf of asemiconductor is given as
(
Example 8.10
nkT
Calculate the cut-off wavelength of aphoton able to create electron-hole pair in asemiconductor having
energy band gap of 1.6 eV.
Therefore,
It is given that I, = 10I, under the influence of radiation. (an Sotution
Cut-off wavelength is given as
log
e
hc 6.62×10-3x3×10
=7758 Å
1.6x1.6x10-19
=
rkT
Example 8.11
Now, change in the photovoltaic emf is given as Ina slab of specimen of width 4 mm, electrons have drift velocity of 3 x10 m/s under the infuence of
nkT the externally applied electric field along the x-axis. Calculate the Hall voltage, if specimen is subjected
to the magnetic field of 4 Wb/m along the z-axis.
e

Example 8.9
Solution
Hall voltage is given as
In a germanium cell, initial photovoltaic emf is 0.5 V. If the short circuit current is reduced to m VH-bu, B,
initial value, then calculate its photovoltaic emf. Given that b = 4 mm =4 x10 n
Solution () brts().pd D=3 x 10 m/s
We know that the photovoltaic emf is given as i9g
B,= 4 Wb/m2
rikT Now, VH=4x 10-3 ×3 x 10³ x4
log U/1)
= 48 V
 Engineering Physics Band Theory of Solids and
284
According to the Blochtheorem, there are allowed Semiconducting Materials 285
energy bands
Calculate the
Example Hall coeficient of a specimen whose electrical conductivity is 2.12 mho/m and chay
8.12 2. regions, and electronic energy function E(k) is
periodic in the wave separated by the
vector k.
3. Wavefunctions of the type u,() = u (ta) are known as Bloch functions.
forbidden
carrier mobility is 0.36 m²/V's. Kronig-Penney model illustrates the behaviour of
electrons in a periodic
5.4 The permissible value of electron energies are governed by the relation potential.
Solution
sin aa)
We know that + cos a= cos Ka
P
coefficient
where Ry is the Hall P=
m, V,b and a2
2mE
where
Now, Rg
6. Energy band occupied by valence electrons is know as valence band, and the energy band which
Given that u=0.36 m²/V's isempty or occupied conduction electrons is known as conduction band.
and
o=2.12 mho/m valence band overlaps the conduction band in metals.
7. The
0.36 =0.1698 Q-m³/Wb. o In semiconductors, the band gap is of the order of 1 eV
Ry 2.12 D. ovtrinsicsemiconductors are obtained by adding impurity ofVth group atoms, and P-type
are obtained by adding impurity of IIrd group atoms.
Example 8.13
0 Total conductivity of a semiconductor contributed by both electrons and holes is given as
The Hall coefficient (R) of asemiconductor is 3.22 x 10 m°/C. Its resistivity is 9 x 10-3Q-m. Cii G= o,tG, =e (nue t puh)
the mobility and the carrier concentration of thecarriers. (Given that e= 1.6 x 10° C) 11. Mobility of an electron is given as
Solution
We know that 01to nsg bad ne

1
Ry= ne
12. Athin layer across the P-N junction depleted of mobile charge carriers is known as the depletion
layer.
where n is the carrier concentration and the negative sign is for the electron. 13. In the forward biasing, potential barrier at the PNjunctionreduces, while it increases during the
reverse biasing.
Now, n= 1.941 x 1024/m3
eRy 1.6x10- x3.22x104 14. Zener diode operates in reverse bias and has sharp breakdown voltage.
We also know that the mobility is given as 15. Varactor diode is based on the voltage variable capacitance acrOss the junction.
16. Junction capacitance is given as
EA
C,=

where p is the resistivity 1. The wavelength of theradiation emitted in a light emitting diode is given as
hc
Now,
3.22x104
9x10-3 Eg
= 3.578 x 102 m?/N-s e solar
ASutably
cell.
designed P-Njunction diode which converts solar energy into electric energy is called
8.16 FORMULAE AND HIGHLIGHTS 19.
1. The band theory of
Photovoltaic emnf is given as
solids came into existence due to the failure of the free electron theory.
log(1/1)
 Band Theory of Solids and
Semiconducting Materials 287
EngineeringPhysics important applications. of solar cells?
What the
are
286
as 18. photovoltaic cells? Derive the expression for the photovoltaic emf.
voltageis given What are phenomena of
20. Hall 19.
Explain the photoconductivity in semiconductors. Derive the expression for the
as 20.cut-offwavelength.
is given
Halcoefficient impurity effectthe photoconductivity.
21. Q-mWb Explainhow does
Ry= 1, B, 21. HallI effect? Give an elementry theory of Hall effect. Mention the important uses of Hall
Whatis
22.
as effect.
is expressed Explainthe terms,
mobility offcharge carriers and Hall effect. Obtain the expression of Hall coef-
22. Hall angle of current density and electronic charge.
23. terms
rad ficientin semiconductors2
extrinsic
as 24 What are
given
23. Hall mobility is Section B
rad-m²/Wb Numerical Problems
B.
the density ofimpurity atoms
that must be addedto an intrinsic silicon crystal to convert
Exercises 1. Calculate extrinsic semiconductor of resistivity 10-3 2-m. (Ans. 1.3 x 102/m)
into an
it
Mobilities of electrons and holes in asample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature are
2.
Section A m²/V-s, respectively. If electron and hole densities are each equal to 3 x1019/m².
vdpubaoo lasi 0.38 and 0.20 the resistivity of germanium.
Theoretical Questions oaleulate the electrical conductivity and
(Ans. G=2.35 mho/m, p=0.425 Q-m.)
1. Discuss the concept of allowed energy bands in solids
using the Kronig-Penny model [Hint: Oant= en, (u, + H)] current is to vary from 20 to 10 mA.
band formation in solids.
2 A6V zener is used in the circuit shown below and the load
the load. The innDut
2. Describe the basic mechanism of Eindthe value of the semi-resistance R, to maintain a voltage of 6 V across
insulators on the basis of their band stryt currentis 15 mA (Ans. 78.26 2)
3. Distinguish between metals, semiconductors, and voltage is constant at 15 V and the minimum
band theory of solids lead to the classification of solids into conductors, semi
4. How does the
ductors, and insulators? |Hint: R, =
Vin-Vo
5. What are the differences between a metal, a semiconductor, and
an insulator? Explain it oa b I,+1, Iz(min) t Iz(max)
basis of the energy band gap.
wwww
6. What are intrinsic semiconductors?
the conduti
7. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? Discuss V= 15 V Wwww
mechanisn through them.
formed from
8. What do you mean by P-type and N-type semiconductors? How are these
silicon?
9. Discuss the effect of donor and acceptor impurities in semiconductors. region is increased to doubie of its
10. Obtain the expression for the conductivity of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. rind the ratio of junction capcitances if the area of depletion (Ans. Cf= 2C)
inital value.
11. What is ajunction diode? Describe the forward and the reverse biasing of the P-N junc EA
12. Explain the action of aP-N junction diode and mention its important applications. [Hint: C,=
13. Explain the construction and working of the zener diode. Mention its importanti
14. Describe the application of the zener díode as a voltage regulator. 2EA
15. What is the basic principle of avaractor diode. Discuss its important applicatiot Cf= W
16. Explain the principle and working of alight emitting diode. Also describe its applicatios 1
17. What is a solar cell? Explain its construction and
working. or Cf= 2C,]
 Band Theory of Solids and
2885.
EngineeringPhysics
Asemiconductor of energyband gap 3eV is exposed to light. Calculate the wavelengh o
5, Band
gap
between the conduction band
and the Semiconducting Materials
valence band ofa conductor is
289
about 2 eV (b) about 5 eV
(a)
from it. ll eV (d) zero
lightemitted (c) about
he f
of band gap in an insulator is
Order
E slsva 6. (a) 2 eV (b) 10eV
emfis 1 V If the cell is (d) none of these
cell, inital photovoltaic exposed to light
value, then find its in
(c) zero
6. In a germanium current is reduced to 1/3 of its initial Semiconductors have energy band gap of the order of
that its short circuit
new photsuocvoha) 7.
(a) 1 eV (b) 10 eV
emf.

Hint:V, =
(Ans20945 8.
(c) zero

(a) increase in
temperature
(d) none of these
Conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
(b) decrease in
able to create an electron-hole pair in asemicondos (c) constant temperature (d) none of thesetemperature
7. Find the cut-off wavelength of a photon materials of
having energy band gap of 2 eV. o Donor type impurities are the
(Ans. 66) (a) Vgroup of periodic table (b) IV group of
table (d) none of theseperiodic table
hc
(c) IIl group of periodic
Hint: , =
impurities are the
10. Acceptor type
(a) trivalent atoms (b) pentavalent atoms
8. In aslab of specimen of width 5 mm, electrons have drift velocity of4x103 m/s under the (c) tetravalent atoms
ence of an applied electric field along the X-axis. Calculate the Hall voltage if the ity (d) none of these
0Pecim
subjected to a magnetic field of 4 Wb/m² along the Z-axis. 1 Total conductivity of asemiconductor is given as
[Hint: V=buB:] (Ans.80N (a) e(nu,-PU,) (b) ent,
(d) none of these
(c) ep,
Section C 12. Potential barrier across the junction
Multiple Choice Questions (a) opposes the diffusion of charge carriers across the junction
(b) support the diffusion of charge carriers across the junction
1. Mobility of an electron is (c) remains neutral
(a) average electron drift velocity per unit electric field (d) none of these
(b) fiow of electron per unit electric field 13. Under reverse biasing, the width of depletion layer across the junction
(c) reciprocal of conductivity (a) increases (b) decreases
(d) none of these (c) remains constant (d) none of these
2. Ohm's law relates the electric field E, conductivity, and current 14. Zener diode has
density J as
(a) J= E (b) J= (a) sharp breakdown voltage
(b) varying breakdown voltage
(c) J= GE (c) constant breakdown voltage
(d) J= E (d) none of these
3. Most widely used conducting materials are o,oitsodrbnt 15. Varactor diode is
(a) gold and silver frequently used in
a) LC resonant circuit
(b) germanium and silicon (b) amplification
(c) rectification (d) none of these
(c) gallium arsenide and its alloy
(d) copper and aluminium ror asemiconductor of energy band gap E.. wavelength of the emitted radiation is given as
4. In a band structure of soiid,
(a) increase in the binding
width of the allowed energy bands
energy of electron decreases with
(a) 4 =
E, (b) 1= .hc
(b) decrease in the
binding energy of electron
(c) increase in the
kinetic energy of electron (c) a= hc (d) d=
(d) none of these E h
 Band Theory of Solids and Semiconducting Materials 291
EngineeringPhysics
operatedat
290 photodiodewhich is bias voltage
constant
siodge Sectíon D
a simple (b) Fill in the Blanks
solarcellisvoltage voltage
17. A zerobias (d) reverse bias functions
(a)
biasvoltage wave of type u() =u (x+ a) are known
(c) forward givenas 1. The
2. Width of. bands decreases with increase in the binding energy of electrons.
Photovoltaic emf is
18.
(6) ,= band is occupied band.
e
3. Valence band is unoccupied band.
Conduction
4. conduction band and valence band is known as
Forbidden energy gap gap
(d) V,= 5. conduction band and valence band
case of metals,
(() ,= ivilbu
19. The maximum value of the wavelength of a photon required to produce the electron-hol:
6. In
have negative coefficient of resistivity.
7 Semiconductors
semiconductors are obtained by doping ....impurity in intrinsic semiconductor.
8. P-type carriers in
given as hc 9. There is no charge region at P-N junction.
barrier is
(a) hc
(b) 4,= 10 Under forward biasing, the height of potential
frequently used for regulation.
11. Zener diode are
(d) none of these i Tfa semiconductor has energy band gap of 1.9 eV, then its enitted energy will lie in
(c) ,=: C
13. Asolar cell is a simply photodiode which operates at voltage.
respectively., then h
20 IfE. i. and B. are the Hall field, current density, and magnetic field, 14. Photovoltaic cell works on the principle of
constant is given as 15. The voltage at which resultant current is obtained is known as photovoltaic potential.
(a) Ry= B, (b) Ry= Ey h 16. Photovoltaic emf increases with illumination producingl, short circuit current.
Bj, 17. Photoconductivity increases with addition of
1T8d lnias
18, Direction of Hallvoltage is perpendicular to the applied electric feld and the applied
(d) Rå Ey field.
19. Unit of Hall coefficient is
21. The unit of Hall coefficient is
(a) Q-m³Wb 20. In terms of Hall coefficient, Hall mobility is given as
(b) 2-m³/Wb
(c) Q-mWb (d) Q-mWb
22. The direction of Hall voltage is Answers
a) perpendicular to both applied electric field and magnetic field te09 20i31 1. Bloch function 2. allowed energy
(b) parallel to applied electric field iaasd sboib s 3. highest 4. lowest
(c) perpendicular to applied magnetic
(d) field only 5. between, band 6. overlaps
perpendicular to applied electric field only 7. temperature 8. Illrd group
9. depletion 10. reduced
1. (a) Answers 11. voltage
2. (d) 12. visible
7. (a) 8. (a)
3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (aboib 1o 6. 0) 13. zero bias
13. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a)IO25112.(0 14. photovoltaic efect
19. (b) 14. (a) 17. (a)oironi18. (0 13, zero
20. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c) 16. logarithmically
21, (a) 17. impurities 18. magnetic
22. (a) 19, Q-m/Wb
20. =Ryo