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 JOHN KARLSRUD

Peace Operations in a New Era

 The UN at War

“The UN at War is an excellent resource for researchers, policy-makers, practitio-

ners, and students who want to learn more about peacekeeping. It provides a very
useful analysis on the past, present, and future of peace missions as well as how
they have faced and could face the challenges of today’s world.”
—Séverine Autesserre, Barnard College, Columbia University, USA

“Confronting new threats and challenges in a context of rising expectations, UN

peace operations are at a crossroads. In smart and succinct fashion, this important
new book identifies the key challenges confronting UN peace operations today,
examines with intelligence the opportunities presented by improved technologies
and doctrines and by the rise of regional organizations and partnerships for peace-
keeping, and shows how UN peace operations shape, and are shaped by, global poli-
tics. Combining cutting-edge analysis with deep insights into contemporary peace
operations, this book will enlighten both newcomers to the field and old hands.”
—Alex J. Bellamy, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies,
The University of Queensland, Australia

“This is an ambitious, rigorous, comprehensive and deeply thoughtful analysis of

the state of the UN peace operations. Karlsrud persuasively demonstrates that the
trend in favour of ever more ‘robust’ peacekeeping, a notable feature of UN opera-
tions since 2000, carries very real risks. Through a detailed and illuminating analy-
sis of on-going operations—informed in part by the author’s personal experience
in the field—the overall conclusion is unmistakable: ‘the urge to resort to use UN
peace operations for peace enforcement purposes, whether against armed opposi-
tion groups or terrorists’ needs to be resisted and critically reexamined.”
—Mats Berdal, Professor, Department of War Studies, King’s College London

“As the world becomes smaller, flatter, and more complex, the challenges to the
UN’s role in maintaining international peace and security have multiplied. In this
impressive new work, John Karlsrud brings a scholar-practitioner’s perspective to
bear on these problems. The deceptively simple heart of his solution lies in the
opening word of the UN Charter: ‘We, the peoples.’ Too often, he argues, the UN
has seen its mandate as protecting governments, rather than the people they are
meant to serve.”
—Simon Chesterman, Professor and Dean, Faculty of Law,
National University of Singapore
“The international community and the next United Nations Secretary-General
will have a chance to initiate meaningful, transformative reforms in the way the
United Nations addresses twenty-first-century social, political, and security chal-
lenges; the road map is provided by John Karlsrud in his new seminal treatise The
UN at War, highly recommended to all international peace and security academics
and practitioners.”
—José Ramos-Horta, Chair of the High-level Independent
Panel on UN Peace Operations, Special Representative
of the UN Secretary-General for Guinea-Bissau, Nobel Peace
Prize laureate, and former President and Prime Minister
of Timor Leste

“This is the most current, up-to-date assessment of UN peace operations available.

It addresses the new challenges of violent extremism and terrorism, and how to
confront them without resort to the UN’s use of violence. Karlsrud proposes
sequencing tasks (rather than trying to do everything at once); devising long-term
political strategies; burden-sharing between the UN, African Union, and other
partners; and proposes ‘people-centered reforms’ that protect ‘civilians, not gov-
ernments.’ A must-read for both analysts and practitioners of peacekeeping.”
—Lise Morjé Howard, Associate Professor, Department of
Government, Georgetown University

“John Karlsrud’s book is a true state of the art on contemporary UN peace opera-
tions. Among its many strengths, it addresses two critical challenges head on: how
peacekeepers can protect civilians in places where terrorism is a threat; and how to
engage more directly with the local populations they are meant to serve. Informed
by a deep knowledge of the political and practical obstacles, this excellent volume
invites serious reflection on how peace operations must adapt to an increasingly
complex security environment.”
—Dr. Ian Johnstone, Professor of International Law,
Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University

“The UN at War face a range of urgent challenges with no easy answers. John
Karlsrud, an author with first-hand experience working in UN Peace Operations,
looks over the horizon at these challenges and possible responses. His book is
timely, accessible and marshals a convincing argument about how the UN has to
change to remain relevant, but how it must withstand calls for it to become a war-
fighting organisation. This is a must-read book for those interested in the future of
the UN and peacekeeping.”
—Roger Mac Ginty, Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies,
University of Manchester
 John Karlsrud

The UN at War
Peace Operations in a New Era
John Karlsrud
NUPI
Oslo, Norway

ISBN 978-3-319-62857-8    ISBN 978-3-319-62858-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62858-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955020

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © proxy minder / Getty Images

Cover design by Samantha Johnson

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Anne Marie, Frode, and Maria
 Preface and Acknowledgments

In a world where peace is becoming more and more elusive, it is of utmost

importance that we uphold the values on which the UN was founded.
After a period of guarded optimism in the first decade of the 2000s, there
has been an increase in violent conflict during the last few years. Violence
seems to be emerging as the only way of expressing anger and frustration
at the lack of agency and participation. There is an urgent need to reflect
on what role UN peacekeeping, and more generally UN peace operations,
should be given in this context.
“Theory is always for someone and some purpose,” asserted Robert
Cox, a former UN employee and professor of international relations
(1981: 128). Thus, the aim of this book is to provide critical reflections on
UN peace operations, and constructive suggestions as to how the UN and
the international system can evolve to remain relevant and tackle the peace
and security challenges of the twenty-first century, without abandoning
the principles that the UN was founded upon, and on which the legiti-
macy of UN peace operations rests.
This book began with my article “The UN at War: Examining the
Consequences of Peace Enforcement Mandates for the UN Peacekeeping
Operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali,” published in Third World
Quarterly in 2015. The changes that occurred in the mandating and
implementation of these three missions from 2013 and onward seemed to
me to mark the possible start of an unsettling trend where the key princi-
ples of UN peacekeeping—and the UN Charter—were no longer heeded.
The arguments for moving away from these principles were and are
many—and indeed, many of them present the world with difficult

vii
viii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

dilemmas that require careful reflection as well as action. Questioning the

assumption that we are facing an era of radically new threats that require
new responses from the international community, I discuss these chal-
lenges and threats, and why we need to treat them as analytically distinct
from the responses that the international community may agree on.
Basically, I take issue with the trend toward using UN peace operations for
peace enforcement purposes, whether against armed opposition groups,
violent extremists, or terrorists.
The book focuses on UN peacekeeping operations in sub-Saharan
Africa, where most UN peacekeeping missions are and have been for the
last 15 years. However, it also looks forward, considering the very real
possibility that future missions may be deployed to Libya in the Maghreb,
and Syria and Yemen in the Middle East. The book does not deal with all
the dimensions of modern UN peace operations, such as security sector
reform and the rule of law, or developing a fit-for-purpose mission support
concept for robust peacekeeping operations.
I am deeply thankful for the support received from the Training for
Peace programme at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
(NUPI) and from the Fulbright Foundation. The latter granted me a visit-
ing scholar fellowship to spend three months at the Center on International
Cooperation (CIC) at New York University, from September to December
2015. I am indebted to CIC and the staff there for hosting me. In particu-
lar, I would like to thank Richard Gowan, the then Deputy Director of
CIC, and Barnett Rubin, the then acting Director, for initially supporting
my proposal, and to the Center’s leadership Sarah Cliffe and Jim Della-
Giacoma for taking me on board and supporting me in every way possible
during my stay. I am also grateful for the continued support from col-
leagues at the Peace and Conflict Research Group (PCRG) at NUPI, with-
out which this book would not have come to fruition. I have benefited
from countless discussions and received incisive and very helpful comments
on various drafts of the manuscript from my colleagues around the world,
including Arthur Boutellis, Camilla Campisi, Cedric de Coning, Ingvild
Magnæs Gjelsvik, Richard Gowan, Ian Johnstone, Jim Della-Giacoma,
Kiyoshi Matsukawa, Hanny Megally, Kari Osland, Niels Nagelhus Schia,
Alexandra Novosseloff, Yf Reykers, Pernille Rieker, Natasja Rupesinghe,
Adam Smith, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Maxime de Taisne. I would also
like to thank Jim Della-Giacoma and Ryan Rappa at CIC, and Jair van der
Lijn and Timo Smit at the Swedish Stockholm International Peace Research
Institute (SIPRI), for permission to use figures and help to develop these.
 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
   ix

A previous and shorter version of Chapter 3 was published as Karlsrud,

John (2016a) “New Tools for Blue Helmets,” in Jim Della-Giacoma (ed.),
Global Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation 2015. New York:
Center on International Cooperation, New York University, pp. 101–107.
Reused with permission of Global Peace Operations Review. A previous
and shorter version of Chapter 4 was published as Karlsrud, John (2016b)
“UN peace operations and counter-terrorism—A bridge too far?” in Jim
Della-Giacoma (ed.), Global Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation
2015. New York: Center on International Cooperation, New York
University, pp. 118–124. Reused with permission of Global Peace
Operations Review. A previous and shorter version of Chapter 6 was pub-
lished as Karlsrud, John (2016c) “How can the UN move towards more
people-centered peace operations?” in Jim Della-Giacoma (ed.), Global
Peace Operations Review: Annual Compilation 2015. New York: Center
on International Cooperation, New York University, pp. 108–11. Reused
with permission of Global Peace Operations Review.
Warm thanks go to André Broome and Shaun Breslin, editors of the
Global Reordering series for Palgrave Pivot, for initially agreeing to publish
this book, as well as to my editors Christina Brian, Ulrike Stricker, Amber
Husain, and James Safford at Palgrave, and to Susan Høivik and Natasja
Rupesinghe at NUPI, who have helped me immensely in the process of
finalizing the book. Finally, I would like to thank Astrid Hornslien for her
warm support and companionship.

Oslo, Norway John Karlsrud

February 2017

Previous publications by the same author:

UN Peacekeeping Doctrine in a New Era: Adapting to Stabilization, Protection and

New Threats. Co-edited with Cedric de Coning and Chiyuki Aoi. Abingdon:
Routledge (2017).
Norm Change in International Relations: Linked Ecologies in UN Peacekeeping
Operations. Abingdon: Routledge (2016).
The Future of African Peace Operations: From the Janjaweed to Boko Haram.
Co-edited with Cedric de Coning and Linnéa Gelot. London: Zed Books
(2016).
 Contents

Introduction   1
Outline of the Book   5
References  8

1 UN Peace Operations in a Changing World  11

UN Peacekeeping: Development and Perennial Dilemmas  16
From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement  20
The Future of UN Peace Operations  23
Spectrum of UN Peace Operations  25
Leadership and Maintaining Relevance  26
References  28

2 The Evolving Politics of UN Peace Operations  33

US Support to UN and African Peace Operations  34
Russia: Retaining Its Place at the Table  37
China: From Passive Resistance to Active Supporter?  39
France: Friend or Foe?  42
The UK  45
Western Powers and UN Peace Operations  47
Major TCCs  48
Pragmatic Partnerships  49
References  51

xi
xii Contents

3 New Capabilities, Tools, and Technologies  59

Entering the Twenty-First Century  59
From Afghanistan to Mali  61
The Future Is Here  62
Political, Principled, and Practical Hurdles  64
Can Technology Help the UN Become More People-Centric?  71
Surf, Not Turf  72
Beware of Techno-Hubris  75
A Brave New World  76
References  78

4 UN Stabilization Operations, Violent Extremism,

and Counter-­Terrorism  83
Stabilization in UN Peacekeeping  86
Stabilization in Practice  89
A Changing Context for UN Peace Operations?  92
Counter-Terrorism and PCVE at the UN Secretariat  93
UN Peace Operations, Terrorism, and Violent Extremism  94
A House Divided Against Itself?  97
Engaging with Terrorists and Violent Extremists  98
UN Stabilization and Counter-Terrorism Missions? 100
UN Stabilization Missions or Increased Burden-Sharing? 102
References 104

5 Competition or Burden-Sharing? UN and Regional

Peace Operations in Africa 111
A Continent in Rapid Change 112
African Responses 113
Fighting Al-Shabaab in Somalia: No Exit in Sight? 114
Fighting Terrorism in the Sahel 117
FIB in MONUSCO 120
Boko Haram and the MNJTF 121
An Evolving Partnership 122
Intervention Brigades or Delegating Authority? 123
Burden-Sharing and Financing 125
Two Opposing but Mutually Supportive Trends? 127
Cooperation, Representation, and Taxation 128
References 131
 Contents 
   xiii

6 People-Centered Reform at the UN? UN Peace

Operations at a Crossroads 137
Introduction 137
Nowhere to Go? Protection of Civilians in South Sudan 139
The Central African Republic: On a Treadmill to Oblivion? 144
Responding to the Needs of People in Conflict 147
What Has the UN Been Doing? 149
How Should Peace Operations Become More People-Oriented? 150
References 152

7 Serving the People 159

The Supply and Demand of UN Peace Operations 159
Moving Toward Chapter 7½? 160
Maintaining Relevance, But How? 161
The Primacy of Politics 162
Better Understand Causes of Radicalization 163
Practice Dictating Principles? 164
Toward People-Centered Peacekeeping? 165
References 167

References 171

Index 199
 About the Author

John Karlsrud is Senior Research Fellow at the Norwegian Institute of

International Affairs (NUPI), and External Associate at the Centre for the
Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation, University of Warwick, where
he also earned his PhD. He has been a Visiting Fulbright Fellow at the
Center on International Cooperation, New York University, and a Visiting
Fellow at the International Peace Institute in New York. Topics of particu-
lar interests are peace operations, peacebuilding, and humanitarian action.
He has served as Special Assistant to the United Nations Special
Representative in Chad and was part of the UN Development Programme’s
leadership program LEAD. He has published articles in Disasters, Global
Governance, International Review of the Red Cross, and Third World
Quarterly, among others. Karlsrud has worked in Bosnia and Hercegovina,
Chad, Palestine, Norway, and the USA, and conducted field research and
shorter missions to Haiti, Liberia, Mali, Mozambique, Serbia, Sierra
Leone, South Sudan, and Ukraine.

xv
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACIRC African Immediate Crisis Response Capacity

AFISMA African-led International Support Mission in Mali
AMISISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
APSA African Peace and Security Architecture
AQIM al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
ASF African Standby Force
ASG Assistant-Secretary-General (UN)
ASIFU All Sources Information Fusion Unit
AU African Union
AU PSC African Union Peace and Security Council
C-34 UN General Assembly Special Committee on Peacekeeping
Operations
CANs Community Alert Networks
CAR Central African Republic
CASEVAC Casualty Evacuation
CCC Civilian Contributing Country
CIC Center on International Cooperation
CODs Common Operational Datasets
CTITF Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force
CVE Countering Violent Extremism
CVR Community Violence Reduction
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration
DDVE Demobilization and Disengagement of Violent Extremists
DFS Department of Field Support (UN)
DPA Department of Political Affairs (UN)

xvii
xviii Acronyms and Abbreviations

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN)

DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
FARDC Forces armées de la République démocratique du Congo
FDLR Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda
FGS Federal Government of Somalia
FIB Force Intervention Brigade
FOBs Forward Operating Bases
FOC Full Operational Capability
G-5 Sahel Group of Five Sahel
G-77 Group of 77
HIPPO High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations (UN)
IASC Inter-agency Standing Committee
ICC International Criminal Court
ICTs Information Communication Technologies
IED Improvised Explosive Device
IS Islamic State
ISSSS International Security and Stabilization Support Strategy
ITU International Telecommunications Union
LCBC Lake Chad Basin Commission
LRA Lord’s Resistance Army
MEDEVAC Medical evacuation
MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
and Chad
MINUSCA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in the Central African Republic
MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in Mali
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
MISCA African-led International Support Mission to the Central
African Republic
MNJTF Multinational Joint Task Force
MNLA Movement for the National Liberation of Azawad
MONUC United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
MUJAO Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa
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