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Palgrave Studies in
World Environmental History

MORAL ECOLOGIES
Histories of Conservation,
Dispossession and Resistance

EDITED
ED TED B
BY

Carl J. Griffin, Roy Jones,


and Iain J. M. Robertson
Palgrave Studies in World Environmental History

Series Editors
Vinita Damodaran
Department of History
University of Sussex
Brighton, UK

Rohan D’Souza
Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan

Sujit Sivasundaram
University of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK

James John Beattie


History
Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington, New Zealand
The widespread perception of a global environmental crisis has stimu-
lated the burgeoning interest in environmental studies and has encour-
aged a range of scholars, including historians, to place the environment
at the heart of their analytical and conceptual explorations. An under-
standing of the history of human interactions with all parts of the culti-
vated and non-cultivated surface of the earth and with living organisms
and other physical phenomena is increasingly seen as an essential aspect
both of historical scholarship and in adjacent fields, such as the history of
science, anthropology, geography and sociology. Environmental history
can be of considerable assistance in efforts to comprehend the traumatic
environmental difficulties facing us today, while making us reconsider
the bounds of possibility open to humans over time and space in their
interaction with different environments. This series explores these inter-
actions in studies that together touch on all parts of the globe and all
manner of environments including the built environment. Books in the
series come from a wide range of fields of scholarship, from the sciences,
social sciences and humanities. The series particularly encourages inter-
disciplinary projects that emphasize historical engagement with science
and other fields of study.

More information about this series at


http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14570
Carl J. Griffin · Roy Jones
Iain J. M. Robertson
Editors

Moral Ecologies
Histories of Conservation, Dispossession
and Resistance
Editors
Carl J. Griffin Roy Jones
University of Sussex Curtin University
Brighton, UK Perth, WA, Australia

Iain J. M. Robertson
University of the Highlands
and Islands
Dornoch, UK

Palgrave Studies in World Environmental History


ISBN 978-3-030-06111-1 ISBN 978-3-030-06112-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06112-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018967773

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Courtesy of Corbis Historical/Getty Images

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Moral Ecologies: Histories of Conservation,


Dispossession and Resistance 1
Carl J. Griffin, Roy Jones and Iain J. M. Robertson

Part I Conservation as Dispossession

2 Politics of Conservation, Moral Ecology and Resistance


by the Sonaha Indigenous Minorities of Nepal 37
Sudeep Jana Thing

3 Global Ecologies and Local Moralities: Conservation


and Contention on Western Australia’s Gascoyne Coast 59
Roy Jones, Joseph Christensen and Tod Jones

4 From Activists to Illegally Occupying Land: Aboriginal


Resistance as Moral Ecology in Perth, Western Australia 83
Shaphan Cox and Christina Birdsall-Jones

5 Ghosts in the Forest: The Moral Ecology of


Environmental Governance Toward Poor Farmers
in the Brazilian and US Atlantic Forests 99
Scott William Hoefle

v
vi    Contents

Part II Conservation as Occupation

6 Crimes against Cultures: How Local Practices of


Regulation Shape Archaeological Landscapes in
Trowulan, East Java 129
Tod Jones and Adrian Perkasa

7 Of Necessary Work: The Longue Durée of the Moral


Ecology of the Hebridean Gàidhealtachd 159
Iain J. M. Robertson and Mary MacLeod Rivett

8 Demographic Fluidity and Moral Ecology: Queenstown


(Tasmania) and a Lesson in Precarious Process 189
Pete Hay

9 ‘Fearless, Free and Bold’: The Moral Ecology


of Kelly Country 217
Graham Seal

10 Squatting as Moral Ecology: Encroachment


and ‘Abuse’ in the New Forest, England 235
Carl J. Griffin

11 A “Moral Ecology” of Afrikaner Settlement


in German East Africa, 1902–1914 265
Thaddeus Sunseri

12 Afterword: On Moral Ecologies and Archival Absences 289


Karl Jacoby

Index 299
Notes on Contributors

Christina Birdsall-Jones is an Adjunct Research Fellow at the John


Curtin Institute of Public Policy at Curtin University in Western
Australia. Her current research interests are Aboriginal family, kin-
ship and social identity, and Aboriginal heritage and native title. Since
joining the John Curtin Institute of Public Policy in 2007 she has con-
ducted or participated in several major research projects funded by the
Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. These projects con-
cern Aboriginal housing histories, homelessness, home ownership, hous-
ing impacts of the mining boom on Aboriginal communities, Aboriginal
household crowding, welfare conditionality and Aboriginal mobility pat-
terns. She has published in the fields of anthropology, Aboriginal hous-
ing, native title and Aboriginal tourism.
Joseph Christensen is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Asia Research
Centre, Murdoch University, in Perth, Western Australia, where he
works in the fields of maritime and environmental history. He is a grad-
uate (Ph.D., B.A. hons.) of The University of Western Australia. He is
co-editor of the collections Historical Perspectives of Fisheries Exploitation
in the Indo-Pacific (2014) and Natural Hazards and Peoples in the
Indian Ocean World (2016).
Shaphan Cox is a Senior Lecturer in Geography in the School of
Design and Built Environment at Curtin University. His research
explores the politics of space and place through representation. Recent
publications include One Day in Fremantle: TV Representation of

vii
viii    Notes on Contributors

This Alternative to Australia Day (2018), Indigenous Persistence and


Entitlement (2016), and the co-authored book Setting up the Nyoongar
Tent Embassy (2013). Shaphan’s Ph.D. (2012) research focussed on
media representations of contested spaces in the tourist-historic city of
Fremantle, Western Australia. Shaphan lectures in Human Geography
and coordinates the undergraduate programme at Curtin University
and the Graduate Certificate in Geography Teaching through Open
Universities Australia.
Carl J. Griffin is the Head of Department and Professor of Historical
Geography at the University of Sussex. A historical geographer of rural
England from the Restoration to the mid-nineteenth century, his work
has embraced histories of popular protest, including the first recent revi-
sionist study of the Swing riots, more-than-human histories, and histories
of labour and welfare. He is author of The Rural War: Captain Swing
and the Politics of Protest (2012) and Protest, Politics and Work in Rural
England, 1700–1850 (Palgrave, 2014) and (with Briony McDonagh)
Remembering Protest in Britain Since 1500: Memory, Materiality and
the Landscape (Palgrave, 2018). He is co-editor of the journals Rural
History and Southern History.
Pete Hay holds an adjunct position at University of Tasmania, where he
was previously Reader in Geography and Environmental Studies. He was
Chair of the Board of Management of Environment Tasmania. Among
many academic publication credits is Main Currents in Environmental
Thought (University of New South Wales Press/Indiana University
Press 2002, and published in Britain as A Companion to Environmental
Thought, by Edinburgh University Press). His main research interests are
place studies, with an emphasis on island studies, environmental activ-
ism and the contemporary relevance of the medieval ‘fool’ trope. He has
worked as a political staffer at both state and federal levels in Australia.
Scott William Hoefle is Full Professor in the Geography Department
of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro where he lectures in cul-
tural theory and political ecology. He completed his D.Phil. in social
anthropology at University of Oxford in 1983. Since then he has under-
taken research in north, north-east, south-east and central-west Brazil.
Relevant recent publications include ‘Fishing livelihoods, seashore tour-
ism and industrial development in coastal Rio de Janeiro’, Geographical
Notes on Contributors    ix

Research (2014), ‘Multifunctionality, juxtaposition and conflict in the


Central Amazon’, Journal of Rural Studies (2016) and (with Ana Maria
Bicalho) ‘Conservation units, environmental services and frontier peas-
ants in the central Amazon’, Research in Economic Anthropology (2015).
Karl Jacoby is the Allan Nevins Professor of American History at the
Department of History, Columbia University in New York City. He pub-
lished Crimes against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves and the Hidden
History of American Conservation in 2001. His subsequent books
include Shadows at Dawn: A Borderlands Massacre and the Violence of
History (2008) and The Strange Career of William Ellis: The Texas Slave
Who Became a Mexican Millionaire (2016). His broader interests fall into
three main fields: environmental history; borderlands; Native American
history. His current project focuses on the aftermath of the 1846–1848
War with Mexico, looking at the incorporation of a vast swath of north-
ern Mexico into the United States.
Roy Jones, Ph.D. (Manchester) is Emeritus Professor of Geography
at Curtin University in Perth, Western Australia, where he has worked
since moving to Australia in 1970. He is a historical geographer with
particular interest in the areas of heritage and tourism. He has authored
or co-authored over 100 refereed publications including the Australian
chapter in The Ashgate Research Companion to Heritage and Identity.
He was the Human Geography Editor of Geographical Research:
Journal of the Institute of Australian Geographers 2001–2009 and is a
Steering Committee Member of the International Geographical Union’s
Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems 2012–2020. In
2013, he was awarded a Distinguished Fellowship of the Institute of
Australian Geographers.
Tod Jones is Associate Professor of Geography at Curtin University
in Perth, Australia, and Co-Director of Curtin University’s Tourism
Research Cluster (TRC). Tod’s research interests are cultural and politi-
cal geographies in Australia and Indonesia. His current research focusses
on Indigenous heritage and urban planning, social movements and herit-
age, and developing innovative approaches to heritage management. He
is the author of Culture, Power, and Authoritarianism in the Indonesian
State. Cultural Policy Across the Twentieth Century to the Reform Era
(published by Brill). He has worked on a number of projects that sup-
port Aboriginal cultural economies in Western Australia.
x    Notes on Contributors

Adrian Perkasa is a lecturer in the Department of History, Faculty of


Humanities, Universitas Airlangga. Currently he is involved in Southeast
Asian Neighborhood Network (SEANNET) research activities, con-
ducted by the International Institute of Asian Studies, Universiteit
Leiden.
Mary MacLeod Rivett is a Senior Casework Officer at Historic
Environment Scotland, and former lecturer in Archaeology at the
University of the Highlands and Islands, and crofter. Her background
is in the early mediaeval archaeology of the North Atlantic region, with
particular interests in the development of urbanism in Scandinavia,
on which she wrote her doctoral thesis at the University of Glasgow
in 1999. More recently, however, following eleven years as Regional
Archaeologist for the Western Isles (Outer Hebrides), her work has
focussed on material expressions of identity in times of cultural change,
and particularly the expression and definition of cultural identity through
the use of the wider landscape.
Iain J. M. Robertson is a Reader in History at the University of the
Highlands and Islands. He has had a career-long interest in the histori-
cal geography of local community and landscape change with a particu-
lar emphasis on the early twentieth-century Scottish Highlands. The
focus of this research has been on popular protest—the Highland Land
Wars—and the sense of place and identity located, made and maintained
therein. His most recent monograph—Landscapes of Protest in the Scottish
Highlands After 1914 (Ashgate, 2012)—reflects that interest. From there
he has helped to open up new perspectives on actions in protest, heav-
ily influenced by non-representational theory, Ingold’s Taskscapes and
Jacoby’s moral ecologies.
Graham Seal holds a personal chair as Professor of Folklore at Curtin
University, Western Australia. His research often focuses on the inter-
sections of myth and history, particularly in relation to war and outlaw
heroes, or ‘social bandits’, on which topics he has written widely. Most
recently, he has published Outlaw Heroes in Myth and History (Anthem
Press, 2011), The Soldiers’ Press: Trench Journals in the First World War
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) and The Savage Shore (Yale University Press,
2016). Since 2009 he has authored the best-selling ‘Great Australian
Stories’ series (Allen and Unwin), bringing academic research to a
general readership. In 2007 he was made a Member of the Order of
Australia in recognition of his work.
Notes on Contributors    xi

Thaddeus Sunseri is a Professor of African History at Colorado State


University. He is author of Vilimani: Labor Migration and Rural
Change in Early Colonial Tanzania, 1884–1915 (Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann, 2002) and Wielding the Ax: Scientific Forestry and Social
Conflict in Tanzania, c. 1820–2000 (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press,
2009). His current research on the social and environmental history of
cattle plague (rinderpest) in East Africa has appeared in the Journal of
Historical Geography (2013), the Bulletin of the History of Medicine
(2015), and Labor History (2018).
Sudeep Jana Thing is an early career researcher who has worked as
a research academic and sessional staff member in the Department
of Planning and Geography at Curtin University, Western Australia.
His Ph.D. research examined contestations between a Sonaha indige-
nous minority group and national park management in Nepal in terms
of the political ecology of conservation. He has authored several refer-
eed articles and book chapters. Before starting his academic career, he
worked with non-governmental organisations in Nepal on socio-cultural
and political aspects of conservation. He is an associate member of the
ICCA Consortium, and a member of the IUCN World Commission on
Protected Areas.
List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 The Karnali river delta and the Bardia National Park (BNP),
mid-western lowland Nepal (Source Author using ArcGIS) 39
Fig. 2.2 Kafthans, and lineage-based allocations of gold panning areas
(not to scale) (Source Author’s field notes) 43
Fig. 3.1 Gascoyne Coast, showing Shark Bay and Ningaloo Coast
World Heritage Areas (Source Joseph Christensen) 61
Fig. 5.1 Remaining “visible” primary forest in 1920 (a); planted
and regenerated forest in 1993 (b) 106
Fig. 5.2 Brazilian biomes and political map 109
Fig. 5.3 Organic cropping in bottomlands and forest regeneration
on slopes (Source Author, field research, 2013) 117
Fig. 6.1 A personal collection of small statue heads. 2016
(Photograph by Tod Jones) 139
Fig. 6.2 Sabar. A bronze bust of the artist. Date unknown
(Photograph by Tod Jones with permission of Hariadi Sabar) 142
Fig. 6.3 Bajang Rau in Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, Indonesia
(Photograph by Tod Jones) 147
Fig. 6.4 The Buddhist Wihara in Trowulan (Photograph by Tod Jones) 148
Fig. 6.5 Rice drying in front of the Watu Ombo shrine, Trowulan,
East Java 149
Fig. 6.6 Candi Brahu, a reconstructed Buddhist temple at
Trowulan, East Java (Photograph by Tod Jones 2017) 150
Fig. 7.1 Location map (Courtesy of Anne Campbell) 163
Fig. 8.1 Locations of Queenstown and Upper North Esk 195
Fig. 8.2 The derelict balcony of Hunter’s Hotel from which King
O’Malley delivered fiery political speeches 199

xiii
CHAPTER 1

Moral Ecologies: Histories of Conservation,


Dispossession and Resistance

Carl J. Griffin, Roy Jones and Iain J. M. Robertson

I go back my full life knowing about it [the common] … my father before


him as well, went right, back. So he was very protective of it in his day
… What his idea was … It’s a piece of limestone grassland, basically, and
that’s what it should still be … our common was in the condition that it
is now because of the way … it has been looked after. One of the biggest
differences between all my life and all my father’s life—and his father, but
we won’t go on to that…1
If we thought for some reason it [the common] was getting a little bit
dodgy, and there were one or two places where the grass did grow, because
the cattle couldn’t get to them, because it was down the bank, and if it
was really ripping through it, we would put a bit out ourselves. We’d say,
“We’ll keep that edge back, away from the wood,” or whatever.2

C. J. Griffin (*)
Department of Geography, University of Sussex, Brighton, England, UK
R. Jones
Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
I. J. M. Robertson
University of the Highlands and Islands, Dornoch, Scotland, UK

© The Author(s) 2019 1


C. J. Griffin et al. (eds.), Moral Ecologies,
Palgrave Studies in World Environmental History,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06112-8_1
2 C. J. GRIFFIN ET AL.

The practice of burning the grassland on the common of the


Gloucestershire parish of Sheepscombe ended in the early 1980s. As the
common-side cottages of the small villages nestled in the valleys north of
Stroud, immortalised in Laurie Lee’s Cider with Rosie (1959),3 were sold
to those who sought a rural idyll away from the soot and noise of the
city, the established, vernacular ways of managing the common fell into
disuse and even disrepute. The customary winter practice of burning the
old, dead grass on the local commons to encourage new growth did not
meet with the approval of those who wanted clean air and calm, rather
than the ash, smell and seeming chaos of the common ablaze. Approval
for this practice was similarly withheld by the forebears of English
Nature, the organisation which became officially involved in the manage-
ment of the common in 1984: burning was not something allowed in
a National Nature Reserve or a Site of Special Scientific Interest. But it
was, in the words of one long-time resident, the regime of burning and
the grazing of cattle that “kept the common a common … Burning and
grazing together was excellent.”4 So, when the commoners stopped com-
moning, the end of burning and grazing allowed the grassland to slowly
become scrub, and the scrub to become woodland. Intervention, in the
form of scrub clearance and the lopping of trees, therefore became nec-
essary in order to preserve grassland habitats. Or, to put it another way,
in the attempt to conserve the local commons, they effectively stopped
being commons. A vernacular, informal and unwritten way of managing
the common as a space which had sustainably supported the commoners
for generations, gave way, in the name of conservation, to a new way of
managing the common emanating from statute and national policy.
This issue, in microcosm, embodies the arguments, ideas and con-
flicts that define this book. The case studies that follow demonstrate how
and, to some extent, even why elite conservation schemes and policies
can often inscribe customary and vernacular forms of managing com-
mon resources as variants of banditry—and how and why the ‘bandits’
fight back. Our inspirations are many but foremost is a volume which
will surely go down as one of the classics of early twenty-first century his-
torical writing: Karl Jacoby’s endlessly suggestive and powerful Crimes
against Nature: Squatters, Poachers, Thieves and the Hidden History of
American Conservation. First published in 2001 and, as a revised edition
in 2014, Jacoby’s book ostensibly rests on a simple hypothesis: namely
that the early history of the conservation movement in the United States
was ­premised on denying the customary practices of those who lived in
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