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PALGRAVE MACMILLAN TRANSNATIONAL HISTORY SERIES

A Transnational History
of the Internet in Central
America, 1985–2000
Networks, Integration,
and Development

Ignacio Siles
Palgrave Macmillan Transnational History Series

Series Editors
Akira Iriye
Harvard University
Cambridge, USA

Rana Mitter
Department of History
University of Oxford
Oxford, UK
This distinguished series seeks to develop scholarship on the transnational
connections of societies and peoples in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries; provide a forum in which work on transnational history
from different periods, subjects, and regions of the world can be brought
together in fruitful connection; and explore the theoretical and method-
ological links between transnational and other related approaches such as
comparative history and world history.

Editorial Board
Thomas Bender, University Professor of the Humanities, Professor of
History, and Director of the International Center for Advanced Studies,
New York University
Jane Carruthers, Professor of History, University of South Africa
Mariano Plotkin, Professor, Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero,
Buenos Aires, and member of the National Council of Scientific and
Technological Research, Argentina
Pierre-Yves Saunier, Researcher at the Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, France
Ian Tyrrell, Professor of History, University of New South Wales

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14675
 Ignacio Siles

A Transnational
History of the
Internet in Central
America, 1985–2000
Networks, Integration, and Development
Ignacio Siles
University of Costa Rica
San Jose, Costa Rica

Palgrave Macmillan Transnational History Series

ISBN 978-3-030-48946-5    ISBN 978-3-030-48947-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48947-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Galina Tolochko / Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Lea
 Acknowledgments

Book writing is always an exercise in constructing networks. Gathering

data, carrying out interviews, finding additional sources of information,
and producing a manuscript all require weaving together an infinite
number of ties. It has been a pleasure to work with everyone at Palgrave
Macmillan. I am grateful to Megan Laddusaw, the editors of the Palgrave
Macmillan Transnational History Series, and anonymous reviewers for
their help in improving this manuscript.
An indispensable node for carrying out this project has been the
Research Center in Communication (CICOM) at Universidad de Costa
Rica (UCR), where I received the needed logistic and administrative
support, as well as the chance to discuss the research’s progress with
colleagues. I am especially grateful to Patricia Vega and Yanet Martínez,
CICOM’s directors during the duration of this project, for having created
the proper conditions to work on it. I also extend my thanks to the School
of Communication at UCR, notably to its director, José Luis Arce, for
making evident his commitment to building bridges between teaching
and research. Fernando García, Research Vice-President at UCR, offered
me his invaluable support to conduct this project. I could not have
published this book so quickly without his help. I am grateful to Sonya
Kozicki-Jones and Kelsey Peterson for their excellent work in the translation
of this manuscript.
A number of organizations and individuals contributed to constructing
the network that is this book. I am indebted to each person interviewed
over the last fifteen years for their willingness to share their stories with me.

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I hope that in this book they find a faithful reflection of their experiences.
I am grateful to Abel Brenes, Ana Lucía Chavarría, Guy de Téramond,
Mario Guerra, and Allan Ruiz for their permission to use various images as
part of this book. Recognition in particular is due to Rachel Plotnick,
Fabián Prieto and Carlos Sandoval, all of whom gave me their views on
preliminary drafts of the manuscript. Niels Brügger and Valérie Schafer, as
editors of Internet Histories, also helped to strengthen certain claims.
Mariana Álvarez, Alejandra Mora and Susan Leitón served as assistants at
various moments of the project; my thanks to them both for their kind-
ness, availability, and enthusiasm while collaborating with me. Virginia
Mora repeatedly invited me to her Media History course in order to share
findings related to this project. Some preliminary results were also pre-
sented at the Association of Internet Researchers (Montreal, 2018) and at
the Association of Latin American Communication Researchers (San José,
2018), where I received opportune comments for improving this work.
I likewise wish to recognize the continuous support of NIC Internet
Costa Rica, notably that of María Antonieta Chavarría, to make contact
with many people throughout the Central American region. UCR’s library
system (SIBDI) was invaluable for obtaining bibliographical materials, as
were CIDACS staff members at UCR’s Instituto de Investigaciones
Sociales and INTAL-LIB, who helped me obtain files that were hard to
find online. René Medina, at RACSA, provided valuable help in making
contact with key sources.
This book is dedicated to my daughter Lea, the border-crossing trans-
national: born in Chicago, she inherited Costa Rican, Nicaraguan,
Guatemalan, and Uruguayan roots from her parents and grandparents. I
am grateful to Lea for her love. Finally, as always, I thank Tania for allowing
me to accompany her on this voyage.
 Contents

1 “Follow the Networks”  1

Networks, Integration and Development: Theoretical and
Methodological Considerations   5
The Nodes of This Journey  13
References  15

2 Matters of Central American Integration (1960s–1990s) 19

The Central American Common Market and the
Telecommunications “Regional Artery”  20
Crisis, Peace, and a Tangled Integration  25
Concluding Remarks  30
References  31

3 The Founding Networks of Central America 33

RACSAPAC: The Central American X.25 Network  34
UUCP: A Technology for Peace and Development  39
BITNET: Overcoming Academic Isolation  48
Concluding Remarks  54
References  56

4 An Internet for the Global South 61

NSFNET Outside of the United States  63
RedHUCyT: Internet and Academic Development in Latin
America  65

ix
x Contents

UNDP: The Internet as the Path Toward Development  70

A Front Divided by a Common Goal  74
Concluding Remarks  75
References  77

5 A Central American Internet 79

The Costa Rican Catalyst  80
Nicaragua and the First “Pure Link” to the Internet  86
Another Rung on the Transnational Ladder: The Internet in
Panama  89
The Internet and the Conflictive Top-Level Domain in Honduras  91
The Strength of Networks: The Internet as an Inter-Institutional
Project in Guatemala  94
Of Networks and Lobbying: SVNet in El Salvador  98
Concluding Remarks 102
References 103

6 Internet and Integration in the Era of Privatization107

Opening the Telecommunications Market in Central America 108
Toward a Commercial Internet 112
Privatization and the Limits of Integration 122
From Internet Access to Meaningful Use: Archaeology of a Latin
American ICT4D Theory 127
Concluding Remarks 130
References 131

7 The Inconclusive Project of Technological Integration135

Toward Transnational Internet Histories 136
Of “Regional Arteries” and “Backbones” for Development 139
References 142

Index145
 About the Author

Ignacio Siles is a professor of media and technology studies in the

School of Communication at the University of Costa Rica. He is a
researcher in the Centro de Investigación en Comunicación (CICOM)
at the same institution. He holds a PhD in Media, Technology and
Society (Northwestern University, USA) and a master’s degree in
Communication (Université de Montréal, Canada). He is the author
of Networked Selves: Trajectories of Blogging in the United States and
France (Peter Lang, 2017) and Por un sueño en.red.ado: Una historia de
Internet en Costa Rica (EUCR, 2008) along with several articles on
the relationship between technology, communication, and society.

xi
 Acronyms

ACDI Canadian International Development Agency

ANTEL The National Telecommunications Administration (El
Salvador)
APC Association for Progressive Communications
BCIE Central American Bank for Economic Integration
BID Inter-American Development Bank
CATIE Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center
CCITT International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee (ITTCC)
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research
COHCIT National Council for Science and Technology (Honduras)
COMTELCA Regional Technical Telecommunications Commission
(Honduras)
CONACYT National Council for Science and Technology (El Salvador)
CONCYT National Council for Science and Technology (Guatemala)
CONICIT National Council for Scientific and Technological
Investigation (Costa Rica)
CRIES Regional Coordinator of Economic and Social Investigation,
Nicaragua NGO Nongovernmental organization
CRNet Costa Rican Research Network/National Investigation
Network (Costa Rica)
CSUCA Superior Central American University Council
EARN European Academic Research Network
ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ENITEL Nicaraguan Telecommunications Enterprise
GUATEL Guatemalan Telecommunications Enterprise

xiii
xiv Acronyms

HONDUTEL Honduran Telecommunications Enterprise

IANA Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
ICE Costa Rican Electricity Institute
ICM International Connections Management
ICT Costa Rican Tourism Institute
ICT4D Information and Communications Technologies for
Development
IDA International Development Agency
IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)
IGC Institute for Global Communications
INTEL National Telecommunications Institute in Panama
Intelsat International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
ITCR Costa Rica Institute of Technology
ITU International Telecommunication Union
MCC Central American Common Market
NSRC Network Startup Research Center
PanAmSat Pan American Satellite corporation
RACSA Costa Rican Radiographic Institution
RAIN Nicaraguan Academic Internet Network
REDCSUCA Central American University Network for Scientific
Information
RedHUCyT Hemisphere-Wide Inter-University Scientific and
Technological Information Network
SENACYT National Secretary of Science, Technology, and Innovation
SICA Central American Integration System
SNDP Sustainable Development Networking Programme
TELCOR Nicaraguan Institute of Telecommunications and Postal
Services
TELGUA Guatemala Telecommunications
UCA José Simeón Cañas Central American University (El Salvador)
UES University of El Salvador
UNAH National Autonomous University of Honduras
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNED National Distance Education University (Costa Rica)
UNI National University of Engineering (Nicaragua)
USAID United States Agency for International Development
UTP Technological University of Panama
UVG Guatemala’s University of the Valley (of Guatemala)
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Microwave links between capital cities of Central America

(1971). (Source: COMTELCA 1967) Title: Regional Artery
of the Central American Telecommunications Network
Symbols: • Terminal station • Repeater or booster station
Capacity: 960 channels Approximate length: 1300 kms
N.B. “Enlaza con”: “Linked to” 24
Fig. 5.1 “Backbone on a table”: Planning CRNet’s connection structure.
(In this photograph (left to right): Abel Brenes, Ana Lucía
Chavarría, Guy de Téramond and Mario Guerra. Source: Guy
de Téramond Peralta. Used with permission) 84
Fig. 5.2 Timeline of key networking initiatives in Central America 101
Fig. 6.1 Proposed development of a “Central American [Internet]
backbone.” (Source: De Téramond and Brenes 1995. Used
with permission) 124

xv
 List of Tables

Table 5.1 Number of nodes, servers, and domains in Central America

(1996)101
Table 6.1 Percentage of internet users in Central America
(2000–2005)123

xvii
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