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Metaphor: Its Therapeutic Use
and Construction
A Professional Guide to Using Metaphor in
Psychotherapy and Counseling

Martin Cohen
Foreword by David H. Rosen
METAPHOR: ITS THERAPEUTIC USE AND CONSTRUCTION
A Professional Guide to Using Metaphor in Psychotherapy and Counseling
Copyright © 2018 Martin Cohen. All rights reserved. Except for brief
quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be
reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the
publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave.,
Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.
Resource Publications
An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers
199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3
Eugene, OR 97401
www.wipfandstock.com
PAPERBACK ISBN: 978-1-5326-4471-9
HARDCOVER ISBN: 978-1-5326-4472-6
EBOOK ISBN: 978-1-5326-4473-3

Manufactured in the U.S.A.

Table of Contents
Title Page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Chapter 1: Understanding Metaphor
Chapter 2: Therapeutic Metaphor
Chapter 3: Milton H. Erickson, et al.
Chapter 4: The Metaphorical Framework
Chapter 5: A Model for Original Metaphor
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
References
 To Gabriela
Who found me when I most needed to be found and devoted her
love and encouragement to start me on a path toward
wholeness. Writing this book has helped move me along.
 Foreword

I AM A CLINICIAN who likes metaphor. I use them in therapy. So,

this book is welcomed. Recently, I saw a new patient, and I
thought that she was the sun sparkling. Obviously, it was too
soon to share this metaphor with her. As this book clearly
outlines, you first have to develop a meaningful relationship
with the patient before disclosing such an analogy.
This manuscript would have aided and will aid me in
developing and utilizing metaphor with patients. With this
book, one cannot only understand metaphor, one can also learn
how to construct them for healing relationships. This is a
text that will assist clinicians of all disciplines. It is a
great honor to endorse this volume, as it will help many on
their healing journeys.
In my work as a Jungian psychoanalyst, I often use many of
the metaphors discussed in this book. I tell stories,
anecdotes, fairy-tales, fables, and parables that relate to
the person’s problem. For example, I have used the Hansel
and Gretel fairy-tale when a patient was suffering from a
severe negative mother complex. This tale helps the person
analyze their conflict with a devouring-mother. As a child, a
mother was smothered with the adoration of their maternal
grandmother. She recalled her mother saying, “You’re so
good, I could just gobble you up.”
This book is a natural one for me to endorse and
recommend. I applaud Dr. Cohen for writing his treatise,
which ought to assist many.
David H. Rosen, MD
Eugene, Oregon
 Preface

LET’S BEGIN WITH THE important question: Why do you need this
book? My best answer is to affirm the large number of
treatment techniques most mental health professionals use
successfully from their tool kit. At the same time, I know
that most clinicians* fail to take full advantage of a most
valuable tool: the extended psychotherapeutic metaphor. My
research attempts to gather information on the current status
of therapeutic metaphor usage confirms the lack of use of
this tool. I strongly maintain that an increased knowledge of
the process of therapeutic metaphor utilization and
construction can increase your effectiveness as a clinician.
This book investigates the contemporary research on the
extended metaphor to determine how it can be used most
effectively in a therapeutic setting. It seeks to do so by
presenting the underpinnings of understanding and using
therapeutic metaphor. Perhaps most importantly, this book
provides you with a model for constructing original metaphors
that includes the therapeutic components necessary to effect
meaningful change in your clients. This is especially
important when we consider that each client is an individual
and requires treatment specific to his or her needs.
The therapeutic metaphor is an intervention by the
clinician that is presented to the client in story form: as
anecdotes, parables, fairytales, etc. Its non-threatening
presentation can create new insights and different, or
original, perspectives on a client’s approach to problem
resolution. There is abundant research on literary metaphor:
One might open up a Holy Bible or turn to Aristotle or
Coleridge to experience the metaphorical harmony of the
universe touching upon the mind and heart. We clinicians are
less fortunate. Relevant work on the extended
psychotherapeutic metaphor is sparse. In “Metaphor: A review
of the Psychological Literature,” Richard M. Billow (1975)
concludes, “Given the scarcity of systematic investigation
of metaphor it is not surprising that theory is incomplete
and research is non-conclusive.” Paivio and Walsh (See
Ortony 1975, 307) concur: “Much of the psychological
research on metaphor was not directed at a really fundamental
problems in the area.” Moser (1998, 21), in turn, points
out, “The analysis of metaphors is a classical research
theme in linguistics, but has received very little attention
in psychological research so far. . . . A further and new
definition of metaphor models has to be developed in order to
achieve a reliable operationalization of metaphor models.
Here, further systematization and methodological development
is still needed.”
The contributions of Milton H. Erickson and David Gordon
stand as valuable contributions to the construction and use
of therapeutic metaphors. Unfortunately, their system is
narrow and restrictive because it is presented within the
boundaries of hypnotherapy and Neurolinguistic Programming.
Thus it is less applicable to other psychotherapy treatment
styles. I propose a model of therapeutic metaphor
comprehension and construction that can accommodate mental
health professionals working in the major systems such as
psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioral, gestalt, marriage and
family therapy, co-counseling, etc. and using metaphors in
their regular clinical practice. To remedy the lack of
“systematic investigation” of the use of metaphor in
clinical practice, this book provides the immediate concrete
information that can help you to employ this important tool
effectively.
 This book will provide you with a basic understanding of
how metaphor can enhance your regime of therapeutic
techniques. You will learn:
• The usefulness of therapeutic metaphors for the client,
for the clinician
• The elements in metaphors that make them therapeutic
• The utility (or usefulness) of therapeutic metaphors for
the client, for the clinician
• When, and for which client, a metaphor is most effective
• What issues are most conducive to metaphoric presentation
• Which of a client’s personality factors affect the way
you construct a metaphor
• What type of person responds best to metaphor
A detailed description of the components used to create
original therapeutic metaphors will instruct you in a step-
by-step fashion. You will find two full-length annotated
metaphors along with many metaphor examples that help
illustrate the text. This book aims to help readers in all
treatment modalities effectively use the extended metaphor as
a therapeutic tool, and involves explaining the theoretical
basis for its use and how to construct original metaphors
applicable to your individual clients.

** I will be using the designation “clinician,” a qualified person

involved in the treatment of clients, for “therapist/psychotherapist”
and “counselor” throughout this book.
 Acknowledgements

IT IS AN HONOR to have David Rosen, MD write the foreword to

this book. I am grateful for his generous time and clear and
kind words.
I also wish to express my appreciation to clinicians,
Charles Kuell, Karen Michael Peoples, Peter N. Alevizos, and
Joan Hersh for contributing metaphors to help make this book
possible.
My thanks to Linda C. Saisselin, Teresa Montes, Hope Lane,
Judith Castro, Zanne Miller, and Tatiana Sporea, who have
given me a more objective view of how other therapists can
use and benefit from this book.
I owe special thanks to my copy editor, Jane Ganter, for
her tireless work to pull this book together.
 Introduction

A FORMER CLIENT SURPRISED me one evening with an excited, albeit

slightly confused, telephone call. I had been seeing him in
therapy for several months and there didn’t seem to be much
progress in our sessions. I had experienced Richard as
extremely defensive and unwilling to deal with any of the
issues he had come to therapy to resolve. He had been
resisting direct confrontation with his underlying problems
so I decided to take a different approach; one I believe
resulted in that propitious telephone call.
Richard was speaking rapidly—he hardly spoke at all
during our sessions. He said that he had been sitting at
dinner and, for “no apparent reason,” remembered a story I
told him a day earlier. What he had paid very little
(conscious) attention to initially now had a special meaning.
It seemed to make the right connection for him to move him to
action. Richard said that he felt like he was in a trance
(trance-acted?) and proceeded to “take care of the business
with my girlfriend just like the guy in the story solved his
problem.” He went on to say, “I guess I needed to look at
this thing a little differently . . . in a new way. It
makes a lot of sense to me now!”
I knew immediately what prompted Richard’s change of
attitude and opened a new door to his problem. I had used an
indirect method to communicate a concept that I wanted him to
consider. I did that by relating a story, a metaphor that was
sufficiently non-threatening for him to store away in his
unconscious. I had presented a metaphor that I felt would
benefit my client if he would consider how it might apply to
his situation. The intellectual aspect of the concept seemed
to have little immediate impact in the session. That is not
unusual. (Richard chose not to even discuss it!) However, I
began to notice nonverbal signs of interest as I proceeded
with the metaphor. His body language indicated that he was
indeed listening carefully to what I was saying, but his
voice expressed the not uncommon response, “What does this
have to do with anything?”
Indeed, what does telling stories, anecdotes, fairy tales,
fables, or parables have to do with the psychotherapeutic
process? I found that I was using more and more metaphors in
my work without really considering the process. My clients
were experiencing more successful outcomes when I added the
metaphor to my various therapeutic techniques. I knew that
something positive was happening, so I continued using
metaphors whenever they seemed appropriate. Then I discovered
the work of Haley, Gordon, and Lankton’s use of the metaphor
as a teaching device and a therapeutic tool (Haley, 2014;
Gordon, 1975; Lankton, 1980). I was fascinated to realize
that I was using so powerful a therapeutic technique that my
clients improved even with my limited knowledge of the
process. I felt compelled to learn as much as I could about
how to use metaphors more effectively. I developed my own
model of constructing and using the therapeutic metaphor, a
process I now want to share with you.
My preliminary research for this book involved speaking to
many clinicians who said that they use metaphors as a
therapeutic technique. I realized that, with a few
exceptions, those I interviewed had, at best, a limited
understanding of how to use the metaphor in a treatment plan.
That was no surprise; it correlated with my own limited
knowledge in the area. Interestingly, our lack of
understanding didn’t prevent any of us from using anecdotes
or stories whenever we thought that they would fit a
client’s situation.
 Many of the reasons the clinicians gave for using
metaphors underlined the need for greater understanding of
the therapeutic process involved. Some typical responses
were:
“It’s just something I use as well as any other
technique of therapy. I don’t do anything special.”
“Metaphors usually make what we’re talking about more
clear.”
“I usually use an example when I think that the client is
not getting the point. It may be a story or similar situation
another client experienced.”
“I have always told anecdotes to clients. I don’t
usually think about it . . . I just do it!”
I believe that few clinicians make optimal use of the tool
that could have a powerful impact on the therapeutic process.
With a better understanding of the pragmatic underpinnings of
the therapeutic metaphor, and have the ability to construct
original metaphors for your clients, you will be even more
effective in your practice.
1
 Understanding Metaphor

Metaphor is both important and odd—its importance odd

and its oddity important.
—Nelson Goodman, Language of Art
As philosophy grows more abstract we think increasingly
by means of metaphors that we profess not to be relying
on.
—I. A. Richards, Life and Work
Each story conveys a different view of reality and
represents a special way of seeing.
—Donald A. Schon, “Generative Metaphor”

A BASIC AIM OF the physical and social sciences is to find

general explanations of natural events; usually such
explanations are called theories. The field of metaphor is no
different in its efforts to search out not just the meaning
of metaphor, but also a theory that will help to explain this
multi–faceted phenomena. Over time, academicians have
developed, criticized, and expanded theories of metaphor,
what Kövecses (2002, p. xiii) calls the “cognitive
linguistic study of metaphor”. They regard metaphor as an
important part of life, discourse and learning, and developed
theories to more completely explain this phenomenon (see
especially Kovecses (2nd ed.), Reynolds and Schwartz 1983,
Lakeoff and Johnson 1978, Black 1962, Tourangeau and
Sternberg 1982, Torneke 2017).
 Innumerable explanations of metaphor come from Aristotle—
“Metaphor, is by far the most important thing to master”—
to Frost, “All thinking is metaphorical.” I have been
selective and diligently tried to choose the works that best
illuminate the subject. Let’s begin with a useful review of
the understanding of metaphor.
According to Tourangeau and Sternberg (1982), the metaphor
is a comparison in which one term (the tenor or subject of
the comparison) is asserted to bare a partial resemblance
(the ground of the comparison) to something else (the
vehicle), to sustain a literal comparison. Put more simply,
their comparison theory asserts that metaphorical utterances
involve a comparison or similarity between two or more
objects. For example, the metaphor, “David is a lion in
battle,” compares two figures of unlike nature. Yet in some
respect they share similar characteristics. Both are
courageous; both fight ferociously and are unconquerable in
battle. This thing to which the first object is compared is
to be understood in some “transferred” sense. In that
sense, David is a lion.
Many authorities advance the notion that the use of
metaphor can generate new insights and provide new
perspectives. The following examples may suffice to support
this contention. Ortony (1975, p. 45) argues for their long
tradition as teaching/learning devices:

Metaphors, and their close relatives, similes and

analogies, have been used as teaching devices since
the earliest writings of civilized man. The
dialogues of Plato are full of them; . . . there
is the cave metaphor to The Republic designed to
illuminate various levels of knowledge, The Bible
is another good source of metaphor, arid, of
course, metaphor is the stock-in-trade of poets and
 writers. The widespread use of metaphor in even the
earliest ‘teaching texts’ however, suggests that
. . . metaphor is an essential ingredient of
communication and consequently of great educational
value.

N. L. Smith (1981, p. 25) concludes that “the utility of

metaphors can be viewed as fully established as a heuristic
device: a teaching/learning method which encourages a person
to discover for him or herself solutions to their life
experiences. What has not been established or developed is a
comprehensible and employable methodology for utilizing and
constructing therapeutic metaphors.”
Burke (1945, pp. 503-504) emphasizes the metaphor as an
especially good technique for providing perspective.

Metaphor is a device for seeing something in terms

of something else. It brings out the thisness of
that, or the thatness of this. If we employ the
word ‘character’ as a general term for whatever
can be thought of as distinct (any thing, pattern,
situation, structure, nature, person, object, act,
role, process, event, etc.), then we can say that
metaphor tells us something about one character as
considered from the point of view of another
character. And to consider A from the point of view
of B is, of course, to use B as a perspective upon
A.

Wallace (1982, p. 32) describes the magical quality of

metaphor: “Metaphors work in bewildering ways and do a
variety of jobs, sometimes so completely that no conscious
analysis can follow them. They may illustrate, explain,
emphasize, heighten, communicate information or ideas, or
carry a tome, feeling or attitude.”
 Kopp (1971, p. 7) addresses the old philosophical
question, “How do we know?” He answers the “how” by
“knowing (the world) metaphorically.” He explains that we
“depend on an intuitive grasp of situations, in which we are
open to the symbolic dimensions of experience, opened to the
multiple meanings that may all coexist, giving extra shades
of meaning to each other.”
To give us a more lyrical look at metaphor, writing on the
metaphors and parables of gurus, Kopp (1972, pp. 1718)
defines metaphor as

a way of speaking in which one thing is expressed

in terms of another, whereby this bringing together
throws a new light on the character of what is
being described . . . for our purposes we will
take metaphor in the broad sense, as denoting any
kind of comparison as a basis for the kind of
illumination we call poetic.

The above examples are aimed to orient and acquaint you

with the most acceptable—and, perhaps, most popular—
theories of metaphor. It appears from a review of the
literature that the foundation of metaphoric understanding is
grounded in, or at least touches deeply upon, social,
philosophical, and linguistic patterns of society, as well as
the psychological domain. This being the case, familiarity
with these foundations can be helpful to you as a clinician
to fully incorporate a working understanding of metaphorical
intervention into your therapy process.
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