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 A Christian modernity
for tribal India

D AV I D H A R D I M A N
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page i

general editor John M. MacKenzie

When the ‘Studies in Imperialism’ series was founded more

than twenty years ago, emphasis was laid upon the convic-
tion that ‘imperialism as a cultural phenomenon had as sig-
nificant an effect on the dominant as on the subordinate
societies’. With more than sixty books published, this
remains the prime concern of the series. Cross-disciplinary
work has indeed appeared covering the full spectrum of cul-
tural phenomena, as well as examining aspects of gender
and sex, frontiers and law, science and the environment,
language and literature, migration and patriotic societies,
and much else. Moreover, the series has always wished to
present comparative work on European and American
imperialism, and particularly welcomes the submission of
books in these areas. The fascination with imperialism, in
all its aspects, shows no sign of abating, and this series will
continue to lead the way in encouraging the widest possible
range of studies in the field. ‘Studies in Imperialism’ is fully
organic in its development, always seeking to be at the
cutting edge, responding to the latest interests of scholars
and the needs of this ever-expanding area of scholarship.

Missionaries and their medicine

M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page ii

AVA I L A B L E I N T H E S E R I E S
CULTURAL IDENTITIES AND THE AESTHETICS OF BRITISHNESS ed. Dana Arnold
BRITAIN IN CHINA
Community, culture and colonialism, 1900–1949 Robert Bickers
RACE AND EMPIRE
Eugenics in colonial Kenya Chloe Campbell
RETHINKING SETTLER COLONIALISM
History and memory in Australia, Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand and South Africa
ed. Annie E. Coombes
IMPERIAL CITIES
Landscape, display and identity
eds Felix Driver and David Gilbert
IMPERIAL CITIZENSHIP
Empire and the question of belonging Daniel Gorman
SCOTLAND, THE CARIBBEAN AND THE ATLANTIC WORLD, 1750–1820
Douglas J. Hamilton
FLAGSHIPS OF IMPERIALISM
The P&O company and the politics of empire from its origins to 1867 Freda Harcourt
EMIGRANT HOMECOMINGS
The return movement of emigrants, 1600–2000 Marjory Harper
ENGENDERING WHITENESS
White women and colonialism in Barbados and North Carolina, 1625–1865
Cecily Jones
REPORTING THE RAJ
The British press and India, c. 1880–1922 Chandrika Kaul
SILK AND EMPIRE Brenda M. King
COLONIAL CONNECTIONS, 1815–45
Patronage, the information revolution and colonial government Zoë Laidlaw
PROPAGANDA AND EMPIRE
The manipulation of British public opinion, 1880–1960 John M. MacKenzie
THE SCOTS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Ethnicity, identity, gender and race, 1772–1914 John M. MacKenzie with Nigel R. Dalziel
THE OTHER EMPIRE
Metropolis, India and progress in the colonial imagination John Marriott
SEX, POLITICS AND EMPIRE
A postcolonial geography Richard Phillips
IMPERIAL PERSUADERS
Images of Africa and Asia in British advertising Anandi Ramamurthy
GENDER, CRIME AND EMPIRE Kirsty Reid
THE HAREM, SLAVERY AND BRITISH IMPERIAL CULTURE
Anglo-Muslim relations, 1870–1900 Diane Robinson-Dunn
WEST INDIAN INTELLECTUALS IN BRITAIN ed. Bill Schwarz
MIGRANT RACES
Empire, identity and K. S. Ranjitsinhji Satadru Sen
AT THE END OF THE LINE
Colonial policing and the imperial endgame 1945–80 Georgina Sinclair
THE VICTORIAN SOLDIER IN AFRICA Edward M. Spiers
MARTIAL RACES AND MASCULINITY IN THE BRITISH ARMY, 1857–1914
Heather Streets
THE FRENCH EMPIRE BETWEEN THE WARS
Imperialism, politics and society Martin Thomas
ORDERING AFRICA eds Helen Tilley with Robert J. Gordon
BRITISH CULTURE AND THE END OF EMPIRE ed. Stuart Ward
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page iii

Missionaries
and their medicine
A Christian modernity
for tribal India

David Hardiman

MANCHESTER
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Manchester
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page iv

Copyright © David Hardiman 2008

The right of David Hardiman to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Published by MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS

ALTRINCHAM STREET, MANCHESTER M1 7JA, UK
www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

ISBN 978 0 7190 7802 6 hardback

First published 2008

17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for
any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Typeset in Trump Medieval

by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page v

CONTENTS

List of illustrations — page vii

Acknowledgements — page ix
General editor’s introduction— page xi
Abbreviations — page xiii
Glossary — page xv
Map of CMS Bhil mission area — page xvii

1 Introduction page 1
2 The Bhils 19
3 The mission to the Bhils 51
4 The great famine 73
5 The conversion of the Bhagats 83
6 Christian healing 105
7 Fighting demons 123
8 Woman’s work for woman 139
9 A little empire 147
10 Medicine on a shoestring and a prayer 165
11 A mission for a postcolonial era 178
12 Medical modernity 189
13 Closure 225
14 Conclusion: mission medicine and Bhil modernity 235

Select bibliography — 248

Index — 255

[v]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page vi
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page vii

I L L U S T R AT I O N S

1 Bhil Christians of Chhitadara, 1904. Source: Paul

Johnson papers. page 92
2 Missionaries and their families at Lusadiya, 1911.
Source: The Church Missionary Gleaner (2 October
1911), 154. See also papers of Jane and Arthur Birkett,
CMS, Unofficial Papers, acc. 446, Z6, clippings file. 93
3 Dr Daniel Christian, Lusadiya, 1940. Source:
The Church Missionary Outlook (October 1940). 173
4 Outpatients being treated on the veranda of Lusadiya
Hospital, 1943. Source: Paul Johnson papers. 195
5 Dr Margaret Johnson seeing outpatient, Lusadiya
Hospital, 1955. Source: Paul Johnson papers. 209

[ vii ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page viii
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research on which this book has been based was funded initially by
the Wellcome Trust through a two-year Research Fellowship. Further
research and writing were carried out with the help of a grant from the
Economic and Social Research Council. The archival research was
greatly facilitated by the excellent facilities and help that were provided
for me by the archivists and librarians in the Special Collections room
at the University of Birmingham Library and the Church Missionary
Society (CMS) library at Partnership House in London. At the latter, I
would like to thank in particular Colin Rowe, Elizabeth Williams and
Ken Osborne. In addition, I made use of the holdings of the Oriental and
India Office Library and the British Library in London, the National
Archives of India, New Delhi, the Maharashtra State Archives,
Mumbai, and the Gujarat State Archives, Vadodara. Nicholas Johnson
and Hilary Griffiths were particularly generous in not only granting me
access to the papers of their father, the Reverend Paul Johnson, but also
allowing me to borrow them for a time. In addition, they supplied me
with a copy of a dissertation on Margaret Johnson by Hilary’s daughter,
Rachel Mash, and have allowed me to reproduce three photographs
from their family collection. The Bishop of Gujarat, Vinod Malaviya,
showed similar generosity in allowing me to photocopy records that he
holds. I was able to obtain an almost full set of the Bhil Mission Report
in part from the CMS archives in Birmingham (earlier years), and in part
from copies held by Bishop Malaviya, supplemented by copies held by
Nicholas Johnson and Hilary Griffiths. For help in the research in India,
I would like to thank Kanu Bhavsar and Babulal Damor for accompa-
nying me to the Bhil villages of Mewar and Sabarkantha to conduct
interviews. Raj Kumar Hans gave me invaluable help in Vadodara. For
hospitality, I would like in particular to thank Nadir, Robyn, Perin,
Kate and Amy Bharucha in Mumbai, and Makrand and Shirin Mehta in
Ahmedabad. For their very helpful comments on the manuscript,
I am indebted to David Arnold, Rosemary Fitzgerald, Sarah Hodges,
Colin Jones, Gyan Pandey, Gauri Raje and the anonymous readers for
Manchester University Press.

[ ix ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page x
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xi

GENERAL EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the notion of Christ as the
‘Great Physician’ became increasingly prominent in missionary dis-
course and its iconic representations. As Western medicine, supposedly
emblematic of the onward march of the rational, aspired to ever higher
status, missionaries increasingly saw themselves as healers of bodies as
well as savers of souls. David Livingstone was one of the most notable
precursors in this: many missionaries (perhaps particularly Scottish
ones) subsequently sought to combine medical with theological quali-
fications, ambitiously pursuing a sort of parallel ordination in both
spheres. Nevertheless, attitudes towards the role of medicine in mis-
sionary endeavour were complex and dynamic, as David Hardiman
demonstrates here.
This study examines a relatively long period in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries in a restricted geographical sphere in India. It also
analyses the reactions of one so-called ‘tribal’ people, the Bhils, to the
missionary and medical ambitions of the Church Missionary Society in
their land. This approach offers highly rewarding results: we are able to
follow the intertwining of missionary and medical, administrative and
military developments in this region of the subcontinent. We are also
given the opportunity to consider in detail the ways in which the Bhils
responded to, resisted, or sought relief in these religious, medical and
imperial phenomena appearing in their area. All of this is charted
through the period of the so-called high noon of empire, the emergence
of nationalist resistance, violent and non-violent, the era of imperial
weakening induced by European warfare, and the post-independence
years. We follow the mission and its hospital through a process of rise
and fall, indigenisation and dispersal. Ironically, early medical arrange-
ments were primitive and expertise was often slight; but as profession-
alisation increased (along with the significant role of women), political
and social weakness became more pronounced.
Many other issues are illuminated through this useful focus: the
incorporation of the Bhils into the imperial military establishment
through the formation of the Bhil Corps and the manner in which this
could both help and hinder missionary objectives; the foundation of
schools and the development of education as another ‘social’ arm of
missionary ambitions; the articulation of complex gendered relation-
ships between traditional and mission societies; and the role of mis-
sionaries in famine relief. Missionaries were of course confronting

[ xi ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xii

GENERAL EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION

indigenous belief systems and concepts of illness and cure. They often
saw these as inimical to their ‘modern’ methods, yet they invariably
placed as much reliance on the ‘supernatural’ as their ‘charges’ and
patients did. Pre-operative prayers were common; praying for ‘miracle
cures’ sometimes seemed to have effect. Bhils often found missionary
doctors’ activities appealing precisely because they seemed to have a
comprehensible spiritual content. Far from the missionaries counter-
posing two Manichaean systems, as they usually imagined they were
doing, the fact was that a greater degree of syncretism was occurring
than they would have been prepared to acknowledge. The Bhils were
often responding to Western medicine and the religious message that
lay behind it in this context by indigenising it and consequently ren-
dering it more comprehensible.
In these and in many other ways, David Hardiman’s book offers
insights into issues of imperial and missionary activity that are applic-
able to many other parts of India and elsewhere in the world. We are
given opportunities to consider the relationship between missionaries
and imperialism, the interaction of recruitment and fundraising in the
imperial metropole and activities in the Indian ‘empire’, the changing
educational attainments and roles of missionaries and medics, the sig-
nificance of women, married and single, and their increasingly signifi-
cant instrumentality. We are also presented with the realities of social,
economic and political hierarchies in India and the ways in which the
British sought to modify these. And all of this is related to theoretical
positions and a wider historiography. This constitutes a rewarding
study for all those interested in the relationships among missionary
endeavour, indigenous responses and imperial rule.
John M. MacKenzie

[ xii ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xiii

A B B R E V I AT I O N S

BMR Bhil Mission Report, used to denote the annual Church

Missionary Society Report of the Mission to the Bhils
CMS Church Missionary Society. Used in footnotes, this refers to
the CMS records held in the Special Collections, University
of Birmingham Library
CMSE Church Missionary Society Extracts, used to denote annual
Church Missionary Society: Extracts from the Annual
Letters of the Missionaries
CRR Crown Representative Records
CWMG Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi
doc. document
FD Foreign Department
FPD Foreign and Political Department
Govt. Government
GSAV Gujarat State Archives, Vadodara Branch
LMHR Lusadia Mission Hospital Report, used to denote Report of
the Lusadia Mission Hospital and Biladia Dispensary
MBC Mewar Bhil Corps
MKAAR Mahi Kantha Annual Administration Report
NAI National Archives of India, New Delhi
NS new series
OIOC Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library,
London
Pol. Political

[ xiii ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xiv
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xv

G L O S S A RY

Baniya merchant caste

Bhagat devotee, a reformed Bhil
bhajan devotional song
bhakti devotion to a deity
bhopa Rajasthani term for an indigenous healer, practising
a mixture of herbalism, divination and exorcism
buva Gujarati term for indigenous healer, as in bhopa
Chamar leather tanners; untouchable caste
dai midwife
dakran witch (Mewari); also dakhan (Gujarati)
daru country liquor, made normally from mahuda flowers
Devi mother goddess
gameti headman of a Bhil pal
jangli wild
jantra-mantra spell with miraculous powers
jogi priest of the Bhils
khatlo bed, consisting of a wooden frame with woven string
base – known as charpoy in northern India
mahuda large tree (bassia latifolia), the flowers of which are
used to make country liquor
mantra sacred verse or formula, an incantation, a spell
mela fair
murti image of a deity
pal Bhil ‘village’, consisting of houses scattered over a
stretch of countryside
panchayat council
pandal cloth canopy supported by poles
Patel farmer caste
puja religious rites performed to a deity
Purdah lit. ‘curtain’ – seclusion of women in a household
Rajput warrior caste, often rulers and overlords
roti flat, round piece of unleavened bread, made of wheat,
millet or maize flour
sadhu holy man who has renounced worldly life
sahib honorific applied to European men, and to Indians in
positions of similar authority
thakor overlord who provided a mix of military service and
tribute to a ruling prince in return for being granted

[ xv ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xvi

G L O S S A RY

administrative, judicial and taxation powers over the

subjects of his estate
vilayati dava ‘foreign medicine’, meaning allopathy or biomedi-
cine
zenana secluded apartment for women within a household

[ xvi ]
M1308 HARDIMAN PRELIMS.qxp:GRAHAM Q7 12/5/08 16:51 Page xvii

CMS Bhil mission area

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