Ancient India (Pre-historic to AD 700)

There were activities of proto-humans (Homo erectus) in the Indian

subcontinent 20 lakh years (2 million years) ago, and of Homo sapiens since
70,000 BC. But they were gathers/hunters.

The first inhabitants of Indian subcontinent might have been tribals like Nagas
(North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central India), Gonds (Central
India), Todas (South India) etc. Most of them are speakers of the Austric, pre-

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Dravidian languages, such as Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans
are believed to be immigrants who came later to the sub-continent.

Ancient India can be studied under other heads like Paleolithic, Mesolithic,
Neolithic and Chalcolithic period – based on the type of stone/ metal tools
people used.

Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)

• Fire
• Tools made up of lime stone
• Ostrich Eggs
• Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool
Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin

Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)

• Major Climatic Change happened

• Domestication of animals ie Cattle rearing started
• Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindya,
Gujarat

Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)

• Agriculture Started
• Wheel discovered
• Inamgaon = An early village
• Important Neolithic Sites : Burzahom(Kashmir), Gufkral(Kashmir),
Mehrgarh(Pakistan), Chirand(Bihar), Daojali
Hading(Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa(UP), Mahagara(UP),
Hallur(AP), Paiyampalli(AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller,
Utnur, Takkala Kota.
• NB: Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur

Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)

• Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze =

Copper + Tin)
• Indus Valley Civilization (BC 2700 – BC 1900).
• Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region),
Mahishadal (W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region)

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 Iron Age (BC 1500 – BC 200)

• Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans ie. BC 1600 – BC 600) – Nearly

1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, ie Vedas were composed,
might have written down later.)
• Jainism and Buddhism
• Mahajanapadas – Major Civilization after Indus Valley- On banks
of river Ganga
• Magadha empire – Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula
• Sisunga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin)
• Nanda empire – Mahapadma-nanda, Dhana-nanda
• Persian- Greek: Alexander 327 BC

Mauryan Empire (321-185 BC)

Important rulers of Mauryan Empire: Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara, Asoka

Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (Middle Kingdoms):

• Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27BC), Satavahanas (235-100BC),

Indo-Greeks, Parthians (19-45AD), Sakas (90BC-150AD),
Kushanas(78AD)
• South Indian Kingdoms – Chola, Chera, Pandyas (BC 300)

Gupta Kingdom (300AD – 800AD): Classical Period

Important ruler of Gupta Period: Samudra Gupta (Indian Napoleon)

Post Guptas or Contemporary Guptas

• Harshvardana, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Chalukyas. Also, Hunas,

Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas and Chauhans.

Medieval India (AD 700 – AD 1857)

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 • AD: 800-1200: Tripartite struggle – Prathiharas, Palas, and
Rashtrakutas
• Attack of Muhammed Bin Kassim (AD 712)
• Rise of Islam and Sufism
• Mohammed Ghazni (AD 1000-27)
• Mohammed Ghori (AD 1175-1206)

* Kingdoms of South India During Medieval India – Bhamini and

Vijayanagara

Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD – 1526 AD)

The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi
Sultanate period.

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 1. Slave Dynasty
2. Kilji Dynasty
3. Tuglaq Dynasty
4. Sayyid Dynasty
5. Lodi Dynasty

Mughals (AD 1526 – AD 1857)

• Great Mughals
• Later Mughals

Mughals from Babar (1526) to Aurangazeb (1707) were more powerful and
hence known as Great Mughals. Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857
were known as Later Mughals.

• Arrival of Europeans
• Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs

Modern India (AD 1857 +)

• First War of Indian Independence (1857)

• Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)
• Formation of Muslim League (1906)
• Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
• Quit India Movement (1942)
• Partition of India (1947)
• Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950)
• Economic Development of India
• Wars – India-Pak – Formation of Bangladesh; India- China
• New Economic Policy of 1991
• Nuclear, Space and Defense Development

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KEEP THE FLAME BURNING 🔥

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 Contents
ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................................................................................................................. 3
(1) Pre-Historic Phase ............................................................................................................................................... 3
(2) Harappan Culture ................................................................................................................................................ 5
(3) Rig Vedic Age ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
(4) Religious Movements ........................................................................................................................................ 11
(5) Mauryan Empire................................................................................................................................................ 14
(6) Important Periods Of Indian History ................................................................................................................. 16
(7) The Gupta Age ................................................................................................................................................... 18
(8) Vakatakas & Pushyabhuti Dynasty .................................................................................................................... 22
(9) The Chalukya of Badami (Vatapi) ...................................................................................................................... 23
(10) The Rashtrakutas............................................................................................................................................... 23
(11) The Pratiharas ................................................................................................................................................... 23
(12) The Palas ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
(13) The Rajputs........................................................................................................................................................ 26
MEDIEVAL INDIA ............................................................................................................................................................ 28
(1) Early Muslim Invasions ...................................................................................................................................... 28
(2) Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526) ...................................................................................................................... 28
(3) Vijaynagar Empire ............................................................................................................................................. 34
(4) Bahmani Kingdom ............................................................................................................................................. 35
(5) Mughal Empire (1526–1707)............................................................................................................................. 35
(6) Marathas ........................................................................................................................................................... 41
(7) Bhakti Movement .............................................................................................................................................. 43
(8) Sufi Movements ................................................................................................................................................ 44
(9) Later Mughals.................................................................................................................................................... 45

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 ANCIENT INDIA
Pre-Historic Phase

Stone Age • The Old Stone Age or the Palaolithic Age in India
developed during the Pleistocene Period or the Ice
The Stone Age can be roughly divided into three parts:
Age.
1. Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic Age)
• The Palaeolithic sites are spread in all parts of India
2. Late Stone Age (Mesolithic Age)
except the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga
3. New Stone Age (Neolithic Age)
rivers.
Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic Age) – 500,000–10,000 B.C.
• The people of this age were hunters and food
(approx.)
gatherers, who had no knowledge of agriculture,
fire, pottery or metals.
Table 1.1 Palaeolithic Age
S. No. Phase Tools Location

1 Early or Lower Palaeolithic Hand axes & cleavers Soan or Sohan River Valley and in the
Belan Valley(Mirzapur Distt. U.P.)
2 Middle Palaeolithic Stone tools made of flakes In the valley of Soan, Narmada and
- mainly scrapers, bores Tungabhadra rivers
and blade
3 Upper Palaeolithic Use of stone tools - mainly In Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
blade and burins Maharashtra, Bhoopal and
Chotanagpur Plateau

Table 1.2 Palaeolithic Sites

Sites Position
The Soan Valley, and Potwar Plateau North-West India
The Siwalik Hills North India
Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh
Adamgarh Hills Narmada Valley
Kurnool Andhra Pradesh
Attirampakam Chennai

Late Stone Age (Mesolithic Age) - 10,000-6000 B.C.

• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age Table 1.3 Mesolithic Sites
are known as microliths, e.g. points, blades,
scraper, etc.
Sites State
• The last phase of this age saw the beginning
Birbhanpur West Bengal
of plant cultivation.
• The three phases of the Palaeolithic Age, Tinnevelly (Tirunelveli) Tamil Nadu
which were succeeded by the Mesolithic Age, Belan Valley Madhya Pradesh
and the Neolithic Age have been located in Bagor Rajasthan
the northern spurs of the Vindhya Range, up Langhneigunj Gujarat
in the Belan Valley. Sarai Nahar Rai Uttar Pradesh

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 Nyatum Doke
New Stone Age (Neolithic Age) - 6000–1000 B.C. • Chalcolithic people of south-east Rajasthan, west
Madhya Pradesh and western Maharashtra
• During this phase, people used stones other domesticated animals and produced wheat, rice
than quartzite for making tools, which were (as staple crop), lentil, black gram, green gram,
more finished and polished. bajra and grass pea.
• Neolithic men cultivated land and domesticated • The Chalcolithic people used different types of
cattle, sheep and goats. pottery, of which black and red pottery was the
• They knew the techniques of making fire and most popular.
also made pottery; first by hand and then using • They generally lived in thatched houses made of
the potter's wheel. mud and reed. It was a village economy.
• They were familiar with only one metal, i.e. gold. • They venerated the mother goddess and
They could also spin cotton and wool, and worshipped the bull. The systems of burial were
different. Like in Maharashtra the dead were
weave cloth. . During Neolithic Age, people led a
buried in the north-south position, but in South
more settled life and lived in circular and
India in the east-west position.
rectangular houses made of mud.
• The Dolmens or the Megalithic tombs are a Table 1.5 Chalcolithic Sites
characteristic feature of the Neolithic Age.
• Koldihwa reveals a three-fold cultured sequence Sites Position
of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Ages. Gelund Rajasthan
• Chopani Mando provides the earliest evidence Jorwe Maharashtra
of the use of pottery in the world.
Nevas Maharashtra
Table 1.4 Neolithic Sites
Daimabad Maharashtra
Sites State Inamgaon Maharashtra
Burzahom Jammu and Kashmir
Navdatoli Maharashtra
Gufkral Jammu and Kashmir
Songaon Maharashtra
Maski Karnataka
Nasik Maharashtra
Brahmagiri Karnataka
Pandu Rajar West Bengal
Tekkalakote Karnataka Dhibi
Paiyampalli Tsmil Nadu Kayatha, Eran Madhya
Pradesh
Piklihal Andhra Pradesh
Unter Andhra Pradesh
Garo Hills Meghalaya
Chirand Bihar

Stone-Copper Phase (Chalcolithic Phase)

• In this phase, tools, hand axes and other objects

were made of stone and copper.

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 Harappan Culture

• This grand old civilisation was earlier called the Ropar in Punjab, Rangpur and Surkotada in Gujarat,
Indus Valley civilisation. However, the fact that Alamgirpur in western U.P., Kot Diji and Ali murad in
Harappa was the first site to be discovered, and that Sind and Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan.
the civilisation existed beyond the Indus region, is
Society
now better known as the Harappan civilisation.
• This civilisation spread roughly across modern day • It was an urban society which consisted mainly of
Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Pakistan and some middle class inhabitants.
adjoining areas. The Harappan civilisation stretched • Existence of different sections of people, i.e. the
from Manda, at Jammu, in the north, all the way priest, traders, artisans, cultivators, fisherman, etc.
down to Daimabad, in the south. It further extended is known.
from Alamgirpur, at Uttar Pradesh, in the northeast, • The people of Sindh and Punjab ate wheat and
till Sutkagendor, at Baluchistan, in the west. barley as their staple food, whereas people of
• More than 1000 sites belonging to this civilisation Rangpur and Surkotda preferred rice and millet.
have been excavated. Fish, milk and curd were known to them.
• This civilisation revealed features of a modern town, • Their pottery was red or black. Copper, bronze,
which was divided into two parts. One was a raised silver and gold were known but not iron.
citadel where the rulers would have stayed and in • Structural remains of the houses indicate that class
the other part of the town lived the ruled and the differences were present in the Harappan society.
poor. • Both men and women loved jewellery. Different
• The town planning had a remarkable arrangement. kinds of necklaces having different shapes and
Streets, some as much as 30 feet wide, were laid out materials arranged in an artistic manner were used.
on a grid plan.
Economy
• The draiñage system of Harappa is almost unique,
which indicates that the Harappans paid a great • Harappans engaged in internal and external trades.
deal of attention to health and cleanliness. Trade was by means of barter.
• Located at Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath, • Sea-trade can be verified by the fact that many
comprising a tank made of beautiful bricks, meant representations of ships and boats are found on the
for some elaborate ritual of vital importance for the seals in Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal.
people. • Lothal had a dockyard. Rangpur, Somanath and
• Important sites of this civilisation are Mohenjodaro Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagan Dor and
and Chanhudaro in Sindh, Harappa in West Punjab, Sutkakoh functioned as outlets.
Pakistan, Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat, Kalibanga
in Rajasthan and Banwali in Haryana. Other sites are
Table 1.6 Famous Harappan Sites
Excavator Present Position
Harappa Dayaram Sahani (1921) Montgomery (Punjab)
Mohenjodaro Rakhal Das Banerjee (1922) Pakistan Sindh (Pakistan)
Kalibanga Amlananda Ghosh, B.B. Lal (1960) Hanumangarh (Rajasthan)
Lothal S.R. Rao (1957) Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Banwali R.S. Bist (1973) Hissar (Haryana)
Rangpur M.S. Vatsa (1931) Gujarat (near Madar river)
Ropar Y.D. Sharma (1955-56) Punjab (Sutlej bank)
Alamgirpur Y.D. Sharma (1958) Meerut (Hindon river)

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 Kot Diji Ghurey (1835) Sindh (Pakistan)
Sutkagen Dor A. Steing (1928); George Dales (1960) Baluchistan (Dashak river)
Surkotada J.P. Joshi (1964) Gujarat (Kutch Plain)
Dabarkot Macay (1935) Baluchistan
Chanhudaro N.G. Majumdar (1931) Sindh (Pakistan)

Table 1.7 Harappan Imports Table 1.8 Towns Near River Banks
Metals Source Region Towns Rivers
Gold Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar Mohenjodaro Indus
(South India) Harappa Ravi
Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Banawali Ghagghar
Baluchistan Kalibanga Ghagghar
Tin Afghanistan, Iran
Lothal Bhogava
Lapis Lazuli Badakshan Rojdi Bhadar
Jade Pamir Malavan Tapti
Turquoise Khorasan Sutkakoh Shadi Kaur
Sutkagan Dor Dashak
Steatite Tapi Chahya (Iran)
Chanhudaro Indus
Bitumin Baluchistan,
Mesopotamia Bhagatrav Kimsagar confluence

Religion: • Cotton growing and spinning were first practiced

here.
• It was 'primitive animism'. No temple like
• Influenced religious beliefs of the Hindus.
structure has been found, but image worship was
in vogue. Indus valley civilisation could be 8000 years old
• A number of large buildings in the citadel and
A study published in Nature Magazine states that a
lower town at Mohenjo-Daro are believed to be
group of researchers in India, hailing from the
temples of Gods. Archaeological Survey of India, IIT Kharagpur and
• Sacred ritual spots included the great bath at Deccan college, have made use of carbon dating
Mohenjo-Daro. techniques on the remains of animals and certain
• On some seals, prototype of Shiva is found n the fragments of pottery found there. They have, thus,
form of Pashupati. He is surrounded by animals concluded that the Indus Valley Civilisation could be
such as goats, elephants, tiger and antelopes. He 8000 years old. These researchers used a technique
is seen sitting in a yogic posture. called optically stimulated luminescence. This
• Pipal tree and Unicorn were also worshipped. technique measures the amount of light that mineral
This evidence indicates the prevalence of a cult of grains emit, in order to date the events of the past.
fertility and mother goddess worship. The entire research focused on the ancient
• Practice of 'fire-cult' is evident from Lothal and settlement in Bhirana in Indian state of Haryana, in
the north. A new theory has been put forth by the
Kalibanga. These sites suggest prevalence of
researchers regarding the decline of the civilisation.
ritual sacrifice.
This theory states that although shifting patterns of
Contribution monsoon played a part in the eventual decline of the
civilisation, the change in pattern of cropping and
• The civilisation portrays the first signs of how the grains were stored had more to do with it
urbanisation in India.
RIG VEDIC AGE
• The word Aryan is derived from the term 'Arya in linguistic term. Those who spoke Vedic Sanskrit
Sanskrit, which means men of good family. It is a were called Aryans.
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• They were semi-nomadic people who came to
India from Eurasia. . The word Veda is derived Sindhu Indus
from the Sanskrit word 'vid' which means to Sushoma Sohan
know'. Vatista Jhelum
• The Rig Vedic phase can be dated from 1500 to Askini Chenab
1000 B.C. Purushni Ravi
• The Rig Vedic Samhita comprises 10 books or Vipasa Beas
Mandalas, of which books II to VII are considered Marudvirdha Maruvardan
to be the oldest. Shatudri Sutlej
• Scholars find similarity in the language used in the Saraswati Ghaghar/Rakshi
Rig Veda and the Avesta – the oldest Iranian texts. Sadanira Gandak

Extent Society

• The earliest Aryans lived in the land of 'Sapta • The tribe was referred to as “Jaņa”. The chief of
Sindhava', i.e. land of seven rivers. This covered the tribe was the 'Gopati'. He was the leader in
the area of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and battle and the protector of the tribe. The warrior
fringes of western U.P. category was called *Rajanya”.
• The river Sindhu, which is identical with Indus, is • Many cians ‘vis' together formed a tribe. The
the river par excellence of the Aryans. Another basic social unit was the 'kula' or the family and
river mentioned is Saraswati. River Yamuna is ‘Kulapa' was the head of the family. The society
mentioned twice and Ganga only once. was patriarchal.
• Women also had an important position in the Rig
• They knew the 'Himalaya’, as one of its peak. Vedic society. They were educated and had
‘Munjavant was a source of Soma plant. access to assemblies. Women composed hymns
• They knew nothing about the 'Vindhyas' and were and received Upnayana Samaskar,
not familiar with the seas. • The writers of the Rig Veda classified the other
Economy groups as 'dasas' and 'dasyus', and distinguished
themselves from them. People from these groups
• The Rig Vedic society was pastoral, and cattle were frequently described as being dark, full-
were the main source and measure of wealth. lipped and snub-nosed, who worshiped phailus
• The 'Raja' or Chief was called 'Gopati' or one who and were of hostile speech.
protects cows. • Various occupational groups such as those of
• In the Rig Veda, ‘godhuli' is used as a term for weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers,
measuring of time and gavyuti' for measuring chariotmakers and priests are also mentioned.
distance.
• The daughter is called 'Duhitri' or one who milks Polity
the cows.
• Kinship units are called 'Gotra'. • The ‘Raja' or 'Chief' was called 'Gopati'.
• A wealthy man who owned many cattle was • Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and
called 'Gomat'. presents, i.e. bali' to the victorious chiefs by the
• The terms used for conflicts and battles in this defeated or the subordinate groups.
period were 'gavisthi’, 'gavesan', gavyat”, etc. The • Important functionaries were 'Purohita' (priest),
former literally meant to search for cows'. ‘Senani' (the leader of the army) and 'Gramini'
• Shifting agriculture was practiced. (the head of the village).
• Apart from Yava' or barley, no other grain is • Important tribal assemblies were 'Sabha' (council
mentioned. of select members), 'Samiti' (council of whole
Table 1.9 Rig Vedic Rivers and the Modern Day Names clan), “Vidhata' (parent folk assembly) and 'Gana'.
Then Now
Kubha Kabul Religion
Suvastu Swat • The Rig Vedic religion was primitive.
Krumu Kurram • They venerated the natural forces around them
Gomati Gomal like wind, rain, water, thunder, fire, ITOL etc.
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 Table 1.10 Gods of the Rig Vedic Period
God Importance
Indra (greatest God of Aryans) Purandhar or breaker of forts
Agni (second position) God of fire
Varuna (third position) God of water, looked after cosmic order
Yama Lord of dead
Rudra Archer God
Pushan Lord of jungle path
Surya The Sun God
Savitri Solar deity, Gayatri mantra attributed to her
Aditi Goddess of eternity and mother of Gods
Prithvi Earth Goddess
Vishnu Solar deity
Marutas Storms
Vayu God of wind
Gandharvas Devine musicians
Apsaras Mistresses of Gods
Viswadevas Intermediate deities
Som God

Origin of the Universe Rig Veda Xth Mandal

Gayatri Mantra Rig Veda
Soma drink Rig Veda IXth Mandal
Chaturvarna Rig Veda Xth Mandal
Gotra Atharva Veda
First mention of Ashrama System Aitareya Brahmana
Mention of three Ashrama Chhandogya Upanishad
Clear mentioning of four Ashrama Jabal Upanishad
Trans-migration Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Theory of Karma Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Cosmic Ocean Satapatha Brahmana
Death appears first Satapatha Brahmana
Mention of seas for the first time Satapatha Brahmana
Aryanisation of eastern India Satapatha Brahmana
Satyamev Jayate Mundak Upanishad
Tarvam asi Chhandogya Upanishad
Mention of Nachiketa Katha Upanishad
Mention of Nagar for the first time Taittiriya Upanishad
Origin of Kingship Aitareya Brahmana
Classification of Government Aitareya Brahmana
Trimurti Maitrayana Upanishad

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Later Vedic Age RSW (Red Slipped Ware) Phase: 200 B.C.-300 A.D. -
Post-Mauryan period
• The period assigned to the Later Vedic phase is
from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C. Polity
• They used a particular kind of pottery called the
• The power of the king increased.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
• Kings were known with different names in different
• Over 700 PGW sites have been located in the upper
regions.
Ganga Basin, and these include the Atranji Khera,
Ahichhatra, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra and • Kings of the middle country were called 'Raja'.
Bhagwanpura. • The king was usually a Kshatriya. The office of the
monarch was generally hereditary.
• Objects made of iron are common to most PGW
sites. Iron was first used sometime between 1000 • Though we get some evidence of election in
and 800 B.C., and has been mentioned by Aryas. Atharva Veda, popular choice seems to have been
limited to members of the royal family.
Geographical Knowledge • Assemblies were dominated by nobles and affluent
people.
• The Later Vedic Aryans knew about the Arabian Sea • Women were not permitted to attend the
and the Indian Ocean, and were familiar with the assemblies.
Himalayas. • Sabha and Samiti continued to hold ground but the
• The Satapatha Brahmana mentions Agni burning institution called 'vidhata completely disappeared.
forest between the river Saraswati and river • The term 'rashtra' first appeared in this period.
Sadanira (Gandak) being carried by the ruler Therefore, territorial expansion and warfare
Videha Madhava. started.
Economy Types of Yagya
• Settled life and stable agriculture led to the • Ashvamedha- Horse sacrifice meant to
production of surplus and this was collected in the establish a king's supremacy over other kings.
form of taxes. • Rajasuya - A consecration ceremony which
• The taxes were probably deposited with an officer conferred supreme power to the king.
called “Sangrihitri'. • Ratnahavimsi -Ratnahavirsi – It was a part of the
• Later Vedic texts also mention an officer called Rajasuya ceremony wherein the royal officials, also
'Bhagadugha' in regard to taxation. called 'ratnins' would invoke the various gods and
• Rice or ‘Vrihi' became the staple diet of the people, goddesses.
along with barley and wheat. • Vajapeya - It is the most relevant ritual which
• Mixed farming (cultivation and herding) was highlights the political organisation of the Later
practiced in this period. Vedic Period.
• Besides gold, tin, lead, silver and iron were other • Vajapeya -A chariot race which was meant to re-
metals known. establish a king's supremacy over his people.
• Niska' and 'satmana' were used as convenient units • Besides 'Purohits”, “Senani' and 'Gramini', we hear
of value but were not coins. of new officers like “Ratuins' (members of the
council of advisers).
Phases Based on Types of Pottery • Suta’ was charioteer, ‘Kshata’ was chamberlain and
Aksavapa’ was game companion of the king.
OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Phase: 2000–1800 B.C.
Society
- Chalcolithic period
BRW (Black and Red Ware) Phase: Post-Harappan • The society was clearly divided into four ‘varnas'
Period namely Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and udras.
• The upper three classes were known as 'dvij' or
PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Phase: 800-00 B.C. - Later twice born.
Vedic period • The importance of women was lost.
NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) Phase: 500- • Gotra' first appeared in Atharva Veda, meaning
100 B.C. - Pre-Mauryan period clan.
• There were instances of child marriage.

9
• Change of caste became difficult. • The Upanishadic doctrine sought to provide an
• Education began with an investiture ceremony explanation of human suffering and became
called 'Upanayana'. fundamental to later thinking.
• On his investiture with the sacred thread, a man
put his childhood behind him. He then became a Vedic Literature
'Brahmachary' and led a celibate and austere life as
• The Rig Veda is a collection of 1028 hymns in praise
a student at the home of his teacher.
of different gods recited by the priest styled Hotri.
• Vratyas' were Aryans outside the pale of
It is divided into 10 mandals of which 2–7 are from
Brahmanism who spoke Prakrit language.
the earliest portion. Aitraya and Kaushataki are the
Brahmanas attached to it.
Types of Marriage in the Later Vedic Age
• In the Sama Veda, all of its verses except 75 are
• Brahma- Arranged form of marriage between a girl taken from Rig Veda. The songs were meant to be
and a boy of the same class, involving no dowry. sung during soma sacrifices by the priest Udgatri.
• Daiva - The father would present his daughter Tandyamaha and Jaiminiya Brahmanas are
to a sacrificial priest as part of the priest's fee. attached to it.
• Arsa - Here, a token bride-price of a cow and a bull • Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the
was paid to the father of the daughter. performance of sacrifice. It contains rituals as well
• Prajapatya -In this type of marriage, the father as hymns, recited by Adhvarya. The Yajur Veda is in
gave married off his daughter without any dowry, prose while Rig Veda is in verse. Satapatha and
and without asking for bride-price. Taittiriya Brahmanas are attached to it.
• Gandhara - It took place with the consent • Atharva Veda is a book of magical formulae that
of both man and woman, and was frequently contains charms and spells to ward off evils and
carried out in secret. diseases. It is supposed to be a non-Aryan work and
• Asura -Here, the bride was purchased. is excluded from Trayi. It contains Gopatha
• Rakshasa - The man would capture the woman, Brahmana.
and make her his bride. • The science of sacrifice is dealt by the Brahmanas.
• Paishach - It involves the wooing, or seduction, The rules for performing sacrificial ceremonies are
of the woman while she is asleep, mentally enclosed in them. Each and every Brahmana is
deranged or drunk. related to one of the Vedas.
Religion • Aranyakas are forest books, meant for instruction
to be given for forest dwelling hermits.
• There were 33 deities during the Later Vedic • Upanishad literally means to sit near someone. It
period, which included ‘Prithvi”, “Aditi', 'Rudra', marks the culmination of Vedic thought. They are
etc. 108 in number. It dwells on Atman and Brahma.
• Religious sacrifices became more important and • The 'Vedangas' are of human origin, and are
elaborate. written as Sutras. Thus, they are not called 'Sruti'.
• These sacrifices were in the forms of 'yajnas' such They contain Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa (ritualistic
as Asvamedha and Vajapeya. . These ajnas were science), Jyotisha (Astronomy), Vyakaran
performed by a group of seventeen priests, who (grammar), Nirukta (etymology) and Chanda
were headed by four head priests called 'Hotri' (metrics), and are fixed in number.
(invoker), 'Udgatre' (chanter), ‘Adhvaryu' • Yask’s ‘Nirukta' is the oldest Indian linguistic text.
(performer) and 'Brahmana' (high priest). Panini's Astadhyayi is the oldest Indian grammar.
• For performing yajna, the priests were rewarded • Sutras: Kalpa Sutra has three divisions: (i) Srauta
generously and given dakshina' (gifts) like cows and Sutra deals with large public sacrifice. (ii) Griha
some portions of territory. Sutra deals with domestic sacrifices like birth,
• Upanishads were the first reaction to Brahmanical naming, etc. (iii) Sulva Sutra prescribes various
dominance which appeared towards the end of the kinds of measurement for the construction of
Vedic period, especially in the land of Panchala and sacrificial altars. It marks the beginning of
Videha around 600 B.C. geometry and mathematics.
• The Upanishadic thought centres around the idea • Important upvedas are Ayurveda, Dhanurveda,
of soul (atman) and not sacrifice (yajna). Gandharvaveda and Shilpaveda.

10
 Nyatum Doke
• Puranas are 18 in number and include list of old Smirti, Vishnu Smriti, Yagnavalkya Smriti and
dynasties. Narada Smriti
• Dharma Shastras are books on law and judicial
procedures. Important Dharma Shastras are Manu

Table 1.12 Six Schools of Indian Philosophy

S.No Philosophy School
1. Sankhya Shastra means Enumerations (oldest Philosophy) Kapil
2. Yoga Shastra means Application Patanjali
3. Nyaya Shastra means Analysis Gautam
4. Vaisheshikha Shastra means School of Individual Characteristics Kanad
5. Purva Mimansa means Enquiry Jaminye
6. Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta means End of the Vedas Badrayana

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

Buddhism • His mother was Mahamaya of the Kosala dynasty.

• It was founded by Gautam a Buddha (563-483 • Mahamaya died at child birth and Siddhartha was
B.C.). brought up by his step-mother Gautami.
• His original name was Siddhartha. • Siddhartha married his cousin Yashodhara and had
• He belonged to the Shakya clan of Kshatriyas. a son Rahul.
• His father was Suddhodana, the ruler of • After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and
Kapilavastu. an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer
• He was born in Lumbini, now in modern day Nepal.

Table 1.13 Buddhist Councils

Council Year Place Ruler Presided by Purpose Result

First 483 Sataparni Ajatashatru Mahakasspa To maintain Compilation of Sutta
Council B.C. cave of (Magadh) purity of Pitaka by Ananda and
Rajgriha Buddha's Vinaya Pitaka by
teaching Upali.
Second 383 Vaishali Kalasoka Sabakami To end the Division of the Sangha
Council B.C. (Magadh) Controversy into the orthodox
between Sthaviravadins (or
monks and their Theravadins) and the
opponents unorthodox
Mahasanghikas.
Third 250 Pataliputra Asoka Moggaliputta To settle the 1. Establishment of
Council B.C. (Maurya) Tissa dispute arising Sthaviravadins
of the rival 2. Final compilation of
claim to Tripitakas.
authority 3. Compilation of
Abhidhamma Pitaka
4. Sending
missionaries to
different parts of the
world.

11
 Fourth A.D. Kunda lavan Kanishka Vasumitra (Presi To settle all the 1. Strict division of
Council 98 in Kashmir (Kushana) dent) and differences sangha into
Asvagho- sha among the 18 Mahayana and
(Vice President) sects of Hinayana
Buddhism 2. Codification of
Saryastivadin
doctrines as
Mahavibhasa
3. Conduct of the
deliberation of the
council in Sanskrit
instead of Pali
4. Spread of Buddhism
to other parts of the
world.

• One night, along with ‘Kanthaka', his beloved • World is full of sufferings.
horse, and 'Channa', his charioteer, he left his • All sufferings have a cause, desire and ignorance of
home, in 537 B.C. He was 29 years old. By leaving attachment.
his home, he performed his great going', which is • Sufferings could be removed by destroying the
also known as Mahabhinishkramana'. He then causes.
became an ascetic who wandered the land. • To end sufferings, one must know the right path.
• He first meditated with Alara Kalama and his next
teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then meditated Eight-Fold Path
with five ascetics named Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya,
Mahanama and Assagi. Six years later, he felt that • Right View: World is full of sorrow
fasting and penance were useless. The five • Right Aim: Love humanity
disciples left him alone. • Right Speech: Speak the truth
• He got Nirvana at 35 years of age, at Uruvela, on • Right Action: Selfless action
the bank of the river Niranjana, under a peepal • Right Livelihood: To live by honest means
tree. • Right Effort: Mental exercise to prevent bad
• He gave his first sermon at Sarnath (deer park) thoughts
where his five former disciples had settled. To • Right Mindfulness: Meditation removes worldly
these five ascetics, he preached his first sermon ills
and called it 'Dharma Chakraparavartana'. • Right Concentration: Meditation will unravel the
• He died at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at Kushinagara, real truth
identical with village Kasia in Kushinagar district of
U.P. in the Malla republic. Buddhist Philosophy
• His last words were ‘all composite things decay,
strive diligently'. • Agnostic, i.e. neither accepted nor rejected the
Five Representations of Buddha existence of God.
• Believes in the middle path ‘Madhyam Partipada'.
Birth Lotus and Bull
• Believes in rebirth and theory of ‘karma’,
Renunciation Horse
nonetheless does not believe in the exis tence of
Mahabodhi Bodhi Tree
the soul. The karma and not the soul gets
First Sermon Dharma Chakraparavartana
Mahapari Nirvana Footprints, Stupas transmigrated to different births, just like the
waves move from one place to another without
Four Noble Truths requiring any carrier.
• Believes in the transient nature of everything.
12
• The attainment of wisdom is ‘Nirvana’ • Five doctrines of Jainism are: (i) Satya or do not
• The death of Buddha and the liberation from the speak lies, (ii) Ahimsa or do not commit violence,
bondage of birth and death is called (iii) Aparigraha or do not own property, (iv) Asetya
Mahaparinirvana'. or do not steal and (v) Brahmacharya or celibacy.
Mahavira had added the last one; the earlier four
Jainism were already in existence.
• Mahavira's first disciple was Jamali.
• It came into prominence under the 24th • The three jewels of Jainism are right knowledge,
Tirthankara Vardhamana Mahavira (from 540 B.C. right faith and right action.
to 468 B.C.) • Jainism like Buddhism is fundamentally atheistic,
• According to Jaina tradition there were 24 though not denying the existence of gods, it
Tirthankara’, the first Tirthankara was Rishabhnath refuses to give them any importance in the
who finds mention in the Rigveda, Vayu Purana and universal scheme of things and places them lower
Bhagwata Purana. than Jina (the conqueror).
• The twenty-third Tirthankara was Parsvanath, who • The world of the Jainas is not created, maintained
was the son of the Ikshavaku king Asvasena of Kasi. or destroyed by any deity but functions only
• Vardhamana Mahavira was the last Tirthankara. according to universal scheme of law and it is
• He belonged to the Janatrika Kshatriya clan and eternal.
was born at Kundagrama in Vaishali, Bihar. • Nayavada of Jainism states that reality can be
• His father's name was Siddhartha and mother's approached from different viewpoints, which are
name was Trishala, who was the sister of the therefore relative, and knowledge cannot be
Lichchavi prince Chetak of Vaishali. absolute. Truth can therefore be affirmed only with
• Mahavira was married to his cousin Yashoda. a degree or probability which is called Syadavada in
• He left home at the age of 30 and wandered for Jainism.
around 12 years. • During Magadha famine in the reign of
• He got 'kevalya' (knowledge) at the age of 42 under Chandragupta Maurya, some Jain monks under
a sal tree on the bank of the river Rejupalika near Bhadrabahu migrated to Karnataka. Since then, the
village Jimbhikagrama. southerners came to be called Digambara (the Sky
• He died in Pavapuri, Bihar at the age of 72. clad) and the Magadhas were known as
Swetambara (the white clad).
• At first, Mahavira followed the practices of an
ascetic group called the Nirgranthas (free from • According to the Swetambaras, the original
wants), which had been founded some 200 years doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in 14
earlier by Parsavanatha old texts called 'purvas’ which were passed orally
• Mahavira believed in the dualistic philosophy and for 200 years.
held that matter and soul are the only two ever
existing elements.

Table 1.14 Jain Councils

Council Year Place Presided by Purpose
First 300 Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Compile all Jain literature in 12 Angas.
Council B.C.
Second A.D. Vallabhi Devardhi Ksh- To solve the differences. It resulted in the
Council 512 (Gujarat) emsharman formation of new sects within Jainism
(Swetambara & Digambara).

Other Heterodox Sects • Lokyatism was founded by Charvaka. It preached total

materialism and did not believe in Gods.
Ajivika sect was founded by Makkhali Gosaa. It was
• Uchhedavada was another materialistic philosophy
popular between fifth and third century B.C. He preached
propagated by Ajit Kasakamblin. It might have
the doctrine of Niyati (pre-determinism) and denied the
influenced Lokyat philosophy.
theory of karma.
13
• Purana Kasyapa preached the doctrine of Akriyavada. conquered Anga. He kept three wives – first from
• Pakuda Kachchayan preached the doctrine of Kosala (sister of Prasenjit), second from Vijjis (a
Asasvatavada. Lichchavi princess) and third from the chief of Madra
clan. Thus, strengthening his position by marriage
THE PERIOD OF SECOND URBANISATION alliances.
• Magadha's most serious rival was Avanti with its
According to the Buddhist text "Anguttar Nikaya, there
capital at Ujjain. Its king Chandra Pradyot fought
were 16 Mahajanapads.
Bimbisara. The two ultimately became friends and
• Magadha kingdom (South Bihar)
Bimbisara sent royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain to
• Anga and Vanga kingdoms (East Bihar)
cure Pradyot.
• Malla kingdom (Gorakhpur region)
• Ajatashatru succeeded Bimbisara after killing him.
• Chedi kingdom (Yamuna and Narmada belt)
• He subdued the Kosalan king and enlarged his
• Vatsa kingdom (Allahabad)
kingdom by conquering Kashi and Vaishali.
• Kashi kingdom (Benaras)
• Udayin succeeded Ajatashatru. He founded the city
• Kosala kingdom (Ayodhya)
of Pataliputra on the confluence of the Ganga and
• Vajji kingdom (North Bihar)
Son.
• Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut and present day Delhi)
• Shishunaga dynasty was founded by Shishunaga, a
• Panchala kingdom (Uttar Pradesh)
viceroy of Banaras in 413 B.C. They temporarily
• Matsya kingdom (Jaipur)
shifted their capital to Vaishali.
• Surasena kingdom (Mathura)
• The Shishunagas' greatest achievement is that they
• Assaka kingdom (Godavari)
finally destroyed the resistance of Avanti and made
• Gandharva kingdom (Peshawar and Rawalpindi)
it a part of Magadha.
• Kamboja kingdom (North-east Kashmir)
• The Nandas usurped the throne and Mahapadma
• Avanti kingdom (Malwa)
Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty. He added
Of these, Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were of
Kalinga to the Magadhan kingdom.
much importance.
• Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha founded the
• Finally, in 321 B.C. the Nandas were replaced by
Chandragupta Maurya who established the Mauryan
Haryanka dynasty with its capital at Rajgir (Giri
vajra). He was a contemporary of Buddha. He Empire.

Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya (321 B.C.-297 B.C.) Bindusara (297 B.C.-272 B.C.)

• The Mauryan dynasty was founded by • Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta Maurya in
Chandragupta Maurya with the help of his mentor 298 B.C.
Chanakya or Kautilya. • He was known as Amitraghat and also as
• According to tradition, Chandragupta grew up Amitrochates.
among the Moriya tribe and his caste was low. • He wrote to Antiochus I of Syria and asked for
• After defeating the last Nanda ruler in 321 B.C., some sweet wine, dry figs and a sophist. Antiochus
Chandragupta crowned himself as the king. sent the wine and dry figs but said that sophists
• In 305 B.C. he fought against Seleucids and signed were not for export.
treaty with him in 303 B.C. • According to Strabo, Antiochus sent Daimiachus as
• Seleucids surrendered a large territory including an ambassador to Bindusara's Court.
Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia • He sent his son Asoka to quell a rebellion in Taxila.
(Gandhara) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan) in return • He was a follower of the Ajivika sect.
for 500 elephants. Seleucids also sent an Ashoka (268 B.C.-232 B.C.)
ambassador, Megasthenses, to the Mauryan
court. • After his father's death, he ascended the throne
• It is known through Jain tradition that but formal coronation was delayed for 4 years.
Chandragupta had accepted Jainism, and after This suggested a disputed succession.
that, he had abdicated his throne in order to have • Mother: Janpadkalyani (according to
Bindusara ascend the throne. He spent his final Divyavadana), Dharma (according to
Mahavamsa), and Subhadrangi (according to
days near Mysore, at a place called
Sravanbelagola. It was here that Chandragupta Ashokavadana).
• While going to Ujjain, he stayed in Vidisa where he
fasted until he died.
met Mahadevi who became his wife,

14
• Mahendra and Sanghmitra were his son and • Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler was killed by
daughter. Pushyamitra Sunga, who founded the Sunga
• All Buddhist sources mention his struggle for dynasty.
succession. A Buddhist text says he usurped the Mauryan Administration
throne after killing his 99 brothers. • The Mauryans had a vast and highly centralised
• Chola, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralputras and bureaucratic rule with the king as the fountain
Tamraparnis are mentioned as his neighbours head of all powers. Kautilya was called the king
Dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order.
Important years: • The highest functionaries at the centre were
• 9th regnal year: fought Kalinga war. called Tirthas. They were the Mantri, Purohita,
• 10th regnal year: went to Bodh Gaya. Senapati and Yuvraja. Besides, the two chief
• 12th regnal year: went to Nigalisagar. officers at the centre were Sannidhata (treasurer)
• 13th regnal year: 'Dhamma inscribed in the and Samaharta (tax collector).
inscriptions. • Kautilya mentions 27 Adhyaksha
• 14th regnal year: Mahamatras appointed. (Superintendents) mostly to regulate economic
• 17th regnal year: 3rd Buddhist Council held, activities. The famous ones were:
continued for 9 months. o Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent of crown land
• Shortly after Kalinga, where he seems to have o Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of
been greatly influenced by Buddhist teachings, he commerce
became a lay Upasaka of Buddha. o Sulkadhayaksha: Superintendent of tools
• Famous for dhamma, inscriptions, administration, o Samsthadhyaksha: Superintendent of market
extent of his kingdom and his benevolence o Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines
(welfare works). o Koshadhyaksha: Superintendent of treasury
• The reverberation of the war (Bheri Ghosha) was o Lakshamanadhyaksha: Superintendent of
to become the reverberation of the law (Dhamma mint
Ghosha). o Pautadhyaksha: Superintendent of weight
• His (Hellenistic) contemporaries were Antiochus II and measures
of Syria, Prolemy II of Egypt, Antigonas of • There was also a mantriparishad' to assist the king
Macedonia, Magas of Cyrenc and Alexander of in the day-to-day administration,
Epirus. • As per the provincial administration, except the
• He organised the third Buddhist Council in the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was divided
18th year of his reign at Paraliputra after which he into four provinces controlled by a viceroy, who
sent Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarna was either a prince or a member of the royal
Bhumi. family.
• Asoka banned animal sacrifice and regulated the Provinces During the Mauryan Empire
slaughter of animal for food. Uttarapath - Taxila (Capital)
• According to his Maski and Gujarat inscriptions he Dakshinapatha - Suvarnagiri (Capital)
was known as Devanama Priyadarshi. Avatipatha - Ujjain (Capital)
• He was converted to Buddhism by Nigrodh but Kalinga - Toshali
according to Divyavadana, Upagupta converted Prachi - Pataliputra
him. • Provinces were divided into districts and had three
• His 14 major rock edicts enumerate his principles main officers. The Pradeshika was responsible for
of Dhamma and kingship. the overall administration of the district. The Rajuka
• Minor rock edicts include Kandhar rock edict looked after the revenue administration and later
(written in Greek and Aramaic): Barabar cave judicial affairs, particularly in rural areas were under
inscription; Queens edict mentions Karuvaki, the the Pradeshika. The Yuktas were probably
mother of Tiwara; Bairat: Bhabru edict; Lampaka; accountants.
Maski (Piyadassi): Sohgaura (famine); Mahasthan. • Sub-district consisted of a group of villages
• Asoka gave us seven pillar edices. These were at numbering 5 to 10 and was administrated by Gopa
Lauriya Araraj, Lauriya Nandan Garh, Rampurva, (accountant) and Sthanika (tax collector). The
Nigali Sagar, Sarnath, Topara and Meerur. village was administrated by the village headman
• The Kalinga edict (Dahuli and Jaugada) mentions who was responsible to the Gopa and Sthanika.
all men are my children'. • The administration of the capital city of Pataliputra
has been mentioned by Megasthenese. It was

15
 administrated by six boards consisting of five herdsmen, artisans, magistrate and councillors. He
member’s coach. confused caste with profession.
• According to Pliny, Chandragupta maintained • He noticed the absence of slavery, but this is
6,00,000 foot soldiers: 30,000 cavalry and 900 contradicted by Indian sources.
elephants. • The position of Shudras improved. They could now
• According to Magasthenese, each city was own land.
administrated by six committees consisting of five Art & Culture
members each. • In the Mauryan period stone culture dramatically
Economy emerged as the principal medium of Indian arts. The
• Land revenue was the main source of income of the first examples are those of Asoka's monolithic
state. Peasants paid V4th of the produce as 'bhaga' pillars.
and an extra tax 'bali' as a tribute. • The four lions on the Sarnath pillar and the smaller
• According to the Arthashastra, the entire land of the figures of animals in relief of the abacus exhibir
empire belong to the king. remarkable beauty and vigour. Stone used in this
• Besides other taxes, pindakara' (assessed on groups period were mainly taken from Mathum and
of villages), "kara' (levied on fruits and flower Chunar. Asoka built a large number of stupas,
gardens), hiranya (paid only in cash) were also probably 84,000
collected. • A more important heritage of the Mauryas is the
• A striking social development was the employment caves built out of Barabar Hills near Gaya. In the
of slaves in agricultural operation on a large scale. caves, the art of polishing is seen to have reached
• The punch-marked silver coins which carried the its climax. The IWO widely known wood imitating
symbol of peacock and hill and regent formed the chambers are the Lomas Rishi and Sudama caves.
imperial currency of the Mauryas. • Asoka and his grandson Dasarath dedicated some
Other Taxes caves to the Ajivikas in Nagarjuni Hills in Bihar
• Praveshya - Import tax • There is another famous art, those of the Yaksha
• Niskashya - Export tax and Yakshanis from Besnagar and Didargunj.
• Durga - Revenue from city • The abundance of popular pottery called the
• Setu - Irrigation tax Northern Black Polished Vare (NBPW) and
• Khani - Revenue from mines Terracotta figurines were other items of popular
• Bhisti - Force labour art. Terracotta objects of various sizes have been
• Agronomoi - Tax officials found at Mauryan sites. The tradition of making
Society mother goddess in clay, dating back to pre-historic
• Megathense divided Mauryan society into seven period is also found at Mauryan sites.
castes, viz. philosophers, farmers, soldiers,
IMPORTANT PERIODS OF INDIAN HISTORY

Sangam Age Puhar (Kaveripartanam) and constructed 160 kın of

• Sangam signifies the assembly of poets and writers' embankment along the Cauvery River.
called Pulavar and Panar (common bards). • Karikala literally means a man with a charred leg.
• The land south of the Krishna river was divided into • He had fought the battle of Venni and defeared 11
three kingdons, viz. Chera. Chola and Pandyas. kings. He was the greatest of Chola kings.
• Sangam age corresponds to the post-Mauryan and Cheras
pre-Gupta period. • The history of Cheras was marked by the continuous
Cholas war with the Cholas and Pandyas. The capital of
• Tondaimandalam, or Cholamandalam, was the Cheras was Vanji or Karur.
dominion of the Cholas. Their political power was • Nedunjeral Aden is the first known Chera king. He is
centered at a place called Uraiyur, which was famous said to have fed both the armies of the Kurukshetra
for its trade of cotron. war and so had earned the title "Udiyanjeral".
• Elara, a Chold King, led a conquest to Sri Lanka, in the • Senaguttuvan, the red Chera or good Chera
mid-second century BC, established his rule there, according to the Chera poets was the greatest.
and ruled over the land for about 50 years. • Senaguttuvan invaded the north and crossed the
• A more authentic history, in terms of sources of Ganga. He is remembered for building a temple of
Cholas, began in the second century A.D. with their Kannagi, the goddess of chastity. The worship of
famous king Karikala, who founded the port city of Kannagi is known as the Pattini cult which was
established by him.
16
• Silapadikaram describes his heroic deeds. Ilango • Romans built temple of Augustus at Muziris.
Adigal the author of Silapadikaram was his brother. • Murugan was a God par excellence for the Tamils, also
Pandayas known as Subramaniya.
• The Pandayas are first mentioned by Megasthenese • Yavan Priya is a Sanskrit term for pepper.
who speaks of the Pandyan country ruled by women. • Muslin, gems and pearls, and spices were the
. Their capital was Madurai. important export items to Rome.
• Nedunjhelian was the most important king of the
Pandyas. They defeated the Cheras and Cholas in the Indo-Greeks
battle of Talaiyalagnam.
• Demetrius, the king of Bactria invaded India around
• According to Sitapadikaram, in a fit of passion he
190 B.C. and conquered a considerable part of the
ordered the execution of Kovalam, the husband of
Mauryan Empire in the north-west.
Kannagi.
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Memander
• Another king was Madaranjeral Inunporai, who had
(165–145 B.C.) who is said to have pushed as far as
sent embassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus
Ayodhya and reached Pataliputra. His capital was
and performed Vedic sacrifices.
Sakala or Sialkot.
Sangam Literature
• Nagasena or Nagarjuna, was responsible for having
• The word sangam is associated with South Indian
Menander convert to Buddhism. The communication
history, where a college or an assembly of Tamil
that took place between Menander and Nagasena is
scholars and poets, flourished under the royal
written down in a book called Milinda Panla, which
patronage of the Pandyan Kings at Madurai between
means, and is also called Questions of
300 B.C. and A.D. 300
• Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
They were the first rulers in India to issue coins
Table 1.15 Sangams definitely attributed to the Kings.
Sangam Place Presided by • The Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in
honour of Vishnu at Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
First Sangam Madura Aggariyar • The reconstruction of the Indo-Greek History has been
(Sage possible mainly by employing the help of the coins
Second Sangam Kapathpuram Tolkappiyar from the period, which bear legends in the Brahmi,
Kharotsi, and Greek scripts.
Third Sangam Northern Madura Nakirrar
• The coins circulated by some of the local rulers of this
period bear the influence of Indo-Greek coinage,
• The available Sangam literature was compiled in circa mainly the silver coinage, which was exquisite in its
A.D. 300-600. workmanship
• The Sangam poetry is divided into two groups, viz. • The introduction of Hellenistic features in north-
faham' on love and 'puram" dealing with kings. western India can be accredited to the Indo-Greeks.
• The whole literature is divided into two groups This eventually became the Gandhara style.
narrative and didactic, The former is called
Malkannakku or 18 major works and the latter Sakas
Kilkannakku or 18 minor works. • The Grecks were followed by the Sakas. They are referred
• Tolkapiyam by Tolkapiyar is a work in Tamil grammar. to as Scythians.
• The Sakas came to India through the Bolan Pass.
• Thirukural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is sometimes called
• The earliest Indian textual reference to the Sakas is found in
the fifth Veda or the Bible of Tamil India'. It is the Mahabhasya.
composed of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. • The first Saka King in India was Maues or Moga who
• Silapaddikaram literally means 'The Jewelled Ankler' established Saka power in Gandhara.
which was written by Ilango Adigal is an epic. It deals • The most famous Saka ruler in western India was
with the love stories of Kovalan and Madhavi. Rudradaman 1 (A.D. 130-152).
• Manimekhalai is a sequel to Silapaddikaram written by • The Junagarh inscription, which was written sometime
Sattalai Sattanar and was considered the 'Odysses of in 150 A.D.brings out the achievements of
Tamil Poetry'. Rudradaman 1. This inscription contains the details of
• Jivaka Chintamani, a third epic by the Jaina the repairs of the damaged Mauryan Dam, which were
Tiruttakadevar. undertaken by his officials. The Mauryan Dam was
• Agartiyam, a magnum opus and grammar of letters located on the Sudarshan Lakc, in Kathiawar's semi-
and life is written by Agathiyar. arid zone.
• The whole Sangam age is called the Augustan age in
Tamil literature.
17
• This lengthy inscription is the first major inscription to Kanva Dynasty
be written in Sanskrit. • The Kanva Dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva
• The Sakas introduced the Satrap system of who killed the Sunga King Devabhumi. After 45 years
government along with the Parthians. of his reign, they were overthrown by the Andhra
Parthians Satavahans.
• The most important Parthian King was Gondophernes, Satvahanas
in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India • In the first century B.C., the Mauryas were succeeded
to propagate Christianity and converted him to his by the Satavahanas in Deccan and central India.
faith. • They ruled for about 300 years with their capital at
Kushanas Paithan or Pratishthna on the banks of river Godavari
• The Kushanas are also referred to as Yue-Chis or in Aurangabad district.
Tocharians. They belonged to one of the five clans of • Simuka was the first important ruler. The greatest
the Yuc-Chi tribe. competitor of the Satavahanas was Sakas.
• Kujula Kadphises minted coins in copper. • The fortunes of the family were restored by
• From the time of Vima Kadphises, Indian rulers took to Gautamiputra Sarkarni, who defeated che Sakas.
the practice of issuing gold coins regularly. • The Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion for
• The Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka I they did not issue gold coins. They mostly issued coins
(A.D. 78–144). A.D. 78 is regarded as the end of the of lead and potion. They also used tin, copper and
Saka cra and is most probably the date of Kaniska's bronze coins.
accession. Mathura seemed to be the second capital, • A Prakrit text Gatharaptarti or Gathasartasai is
the first being Purushpura near modern Peshawar. attributed to a Satavahana King called Hala.
• The Kushana Empire, at its peak, extended from • During the Satavahana period, fortified settlements
Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh to Varanasi in Uttar developed in the Deccan.
Pradesh. • Under the Satavahanas, during the first century A.D.,
• He patroniscd Asvaghosa the writer of Buddhacharita can be traced the donation of revenue of a village to
and Chanika. either a Brahmana or a Buddhist sangha, which
• He was a great patron of Buddhism and the fourth became much more widespread under the Gupcą
Buddhist council was held under his patronage rulers.
Sunga Dynasty • Various inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers prove
• The Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushvamitra that they were part of a matriarchal society. This can
Sunga who performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices. be concluded as the inscriptions do not bear the
The last of the Sunga kings Devabhuti was killed by his names of their fathers, but those of their mothers. For
minister Vasudeva in about 73 B.C. example, Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of
Gautami.

The Gupta Age

• He married a Lichchavi princess Kumara Devi and had
• A new empire rose from the ashes of the Kushana her portrait engraved on his coins.
Empire, and established its rule over most of the • Chandragupta I was an important ruler of the dynasty
dominions that had once been part of the Kushana for he started a new era in A.D. 319-320, which
and Satavahana Empires. marked the date of his accession.
• This was the empire of the Guptas. The Guptas are Gupta Age Temples
speculated to have been of Vaishya origin. • Vishnu temple - Tigawa (Jabalpur)
• Little is known about the early Guptas. The first known • Shiva temple - Bhumara (Nagaud)
ruler was Sri Gupta, probably ruling over a small • Parvati temple - Nachna Kuthara
portion of north Bengal and south Bihar. • Dasavtar temple - Deogarh (Jhansi)
• He was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha. Both kings • Shiva temple - Koh (Nagaud)
had adopted the title of "Maharaj . • Bhitargaon temple - Bhitargaon
• The first important king of the Gupca dynasty was • Lakshiman temple (brick made)- Kanpur
Chandragupta I. • Laxman temple - Sirpur (Raipur)
Chandragupta I (A.D. 320-335) • Mukund Darra temple -Kota
• Dhammekh Slupa - Sarnath
• He assumed the title of "Maharajadhiraja' and issued • Jarasandh Sitting - Rajgarh (Bihar)
gold coins.

18
 Technical Books Author • Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but he
was killed by Chandragupta II, who also married his
• Chandra Vakanan - Chandragomin queen Dhruvadevi.
• Amar Kosh - Amar Singh
• Chandragupta II forged an alliance with the Nagas
• Nitishastra - Kamandak
through matrimony, by marrying Princess Kubernaga.
• Kamsutra - Vatsayayana Prabhavati, their daughter, became the bride of
• Aryabhattiya - Aryabhatt Rudrasena II. who belonged to the Vakataka family.
• Panchasiddantika - Varahmihir • Mehrauli iron pillar inscription mentions his authority
• Brihatsamhita - Varahmihir over north western India and a good portion of Bengal.
• Laghu Jataka - Varahmihir • He made Ujjain his second capital.
• Astanghridaya Samhir -Vagbhatt • Veerasen Sava was the court poet and minister of
• Hastayurveda - Pulkapya Chandragupta II.
• Sankhya Karika - Iswar Krishna
• Amarkhardava was his army general.
• Fa-hien, the Chinese traveller came during the time of
Terminologies Chandragupta II.
• Amatya - Bureaucracy • The gold coins during his reign were called "Dinara'
• Dandapasika - Head of police
department Navratna of Chandragupta Vikramaditya
• Sarvadhyaksha - Head of central 1.Kalidas 6.Bhatt
secretariat 2.Dhanvantari 7.Ghat Karpat
• Ranabhandagarika - Officer in-charge of 3.Kshapnak 8.Varahmihir
fulfilling military needs 4.Amar Singh 9.Varauchi
• Mahasandhivi grahika - War, peace and foreign 5.Shanku Betal
affairs
• Mahadandanayak -War and justice department Kumargupta I
• Bhaga -1/6ch share of produce
• Bhoga - Flowers, fruits, milk, etc. given to king • Chandragupta II was succeeded by Kumargupta I.
• Kara -Additional cess • His inscriptions are the Bilsad inscription, the
• Bali - Religious tax Karandanda inscriptions, the Mandsor inscription,
• Uparikara - Additional cess the Damodarpur copper plate inscription.
• Udranga - Tax from permanent peasants • He founded the Nalında University.
• Hiranya - Cash for
• Vata-bhu - Tax for wind and water gods Skandagupta
• Kshetra -Cultivable land • He had to fight the Pushyamitras and the Hunas. He
• Khita -Barren land was successful in overthrowing the Hunas.
• Aprahata -Jungle or forest • The Junagarh inscription of his region tells that his
• Vasti - Habitable land governor Parnadatta got the Sudarshan Lake
• Grazing land - Gapacha Sarah
repaired.

Samudragupta Some of the successors of Skandagupta were

Buddhagupta, Vainyagupta, Bhanagupta Narsimhagupta
• An inscription engraved on the Asoka pillar at Baladitya, Kumargupta II and Vishnugupta
Allahabad (known as Prayagaprasasti) gives us
information about Samudragupta's accession and Important Court Poets and their Patrons
conquests. It was composed by Harisena
Harisena Samudragupta
• Samudragupta performed the Aswamedha Yajna and
struck gold coins of Yupa type. Dandin Narsimhavaramana (Pallava)
• He granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon Banabhatt Harsha
Meghavarman to build a Monastry at Bodh Gaya. Ravikinci Pulkeshin-II
Hence, he was called Anukampavan (full of Bhavabhuti Yasovarman of Kannauj
compassion). Rajashekhar Mahipala (Pratihara)
Kalidas Chandragupta-II
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
Gunadhya Hala (Satvahana)

19
Administration • Yaynavalkya Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti,
etc. were written during this period.
• The king remained the central figure of
administration. Religion
• We find that Guptas adopted high sounding titles like
'Parambhattarala Parama daivata', 'Chakravarti', • Hindustan acquired its present shape only during
"Parmeshwar', etc. Gupta age. Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh emerged as
• The Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta described the Supreme deities.
him as equal to the Gods like Indira, Varun, etc. • Bhagvatism became more popular and cantered on
• The Mahadandnayak (chief justice), assissted the the worship of Vishnu or Bhagwata. Theory of Karma
King, even though he possessed judicial powers and idea of Bhakti and Ahimsa became the
which were supreme. The Uparikas cook care of the foundation of Bhagvatism.
judicial work in the provinces, while Vishyapatis dealt • Idol worship in temples became a common feature.
with judicial matters at the district level. Within Concept of Avatars or incarnations of Vishnu was
preached.
villages, the village headman and the elders took care
• Durga, Kali, Amba, Chandi, etc. came to be regarded
of small and petry cases. It is stated by Fa-hien, a
as mother goddesses.
Chincse traveler, that capital punishment was never
• Four ends of life were enumerated as Dharma, Artha,
resorted to.
Kama and Moksha for three were called Trivarga.
• The Chief of the palace's guards was the
• Buddhism no longer received royal patronage.
Mahapratihara, while the official who regulated
Science and Technology
ceremonies and was responsible for granting the
required permits for being admitted to the royal • Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in
presence was known as the Prarihara. the field of Mathematics and Astronomy.
• The task of implementing gifts when the Brahmans • Aryabhatta was the first to use the decimal system,
and others were gifted land, was taken care of by the though he was not its founder. He formulated the
Dutakas. rule for finding out the area of triangle which led to
• The empire was divided into Bhukti (province), placed the origin of trigonometry, He calculated the value of
under the charge of an Uparika (Viceroy). Bhuktis pie and laid down the foundation of algebra in his
were divided into districts (Vishayas), which were book Aryabhattiyam.
placed under the charge of Vishayapati. The sub- • The most famous work of this time was Surya
districts were called Peth and the villages were under Siddhanta.
the Gramika and Mahattar. • Brahmagupta in the 7th century A.D. developed rules
• Religious functionaries were granted land called for operating with zero and negative quantities; he
Agrahara, free of taxes forever and they were began to apply algebra to astronomical problems.
authorised to collect, from peasants, all taxes which • Aryabhatta found the causes of lunar and solar
could have otherwise gone to the emperor. eclipse. He also calculated the circumference of the
• Land Revenue was 1/6th of the produce payable Earth which is still almost correct. He was the first to
either in cash or kind. reveal that the sun is stationary and the earth
Society revolves around the sun.
• Varahamihir's well known work was Brihatsamhita,
• Varnasamkara was the intermarriage between which stated that the moon rotates around the sun.
various varnas. He also wrote the Panchasidhantika which gives the
• The many foreign ruling families, of Greek or Scythian summary of five astronomical books current in his
origin, belonging to the pre-Gupta period, could not time.
be considered as being of pure Kshatriya origin, and • Romaka Sidhani was also complied and was
so, were given the status of semi-Kshatriya (Vratya influenced by Greek ideas,
Kshatriya). The Guptas excelled in metallurgy. The iron pillar at
• The Antyajas or untouchables were considered to be Mehrauli has withstood rain and weather for centuries
impure, so much so, that even their touch was without rusting.
regarded as being impure. The Chandalas and the
Charmakaras were considered as outcasts. Table 1.16 Foreign Travellers Accounts of Ancient India
• The position of Shudras improved somewhat.
Name Country Period
• The condition of women deteriorated.
• The first example of Sati from this area came in A.D. Millates, Greece 6th century B.C.
510. Niarchus Greece During

20
 M.S.Shashank
Aristobulas Greece Alexander • Mahaviracharta, Ulterramacharita and
Onececrites Greece Invasion Maltimadhava by Bhavabhuti.
Megasthanese Greece Chandragupta Maurya
Lyric Poetry
Arrian Greece 1st century B.C
Strabo, Pliny Greece 1st century A.D. • Meghadutam by Kalidas.
Fa-hien China Chandragupta • Sringarshataka, Nishataka and Vairagyashataka by
Hiuen Tsang China Harshavardhana Bhartrihan.
It-sing China 7th century A.D. • Chaura Panchasika by Bilhana.
• Gita Govinda by Jayadeva.
Literature Historical Writing
• Bhasha wrote three plays. Shudraka wrote • Harsha Charita by Banabhatta.
Mrichkarikam or Little Clay Cart. • Gaudavaho by Vakpati, written in Prakrit.
• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshusha and • Ramacharita by Sandhyakar Nandi, deals with conflict
Devichandraguptam. Women and Shudras featuring between Kalvarta peasants and Pala prince
in the plays spoke Prakrit. Ramapala.
• Both Ramayana and Mahabharata along with various • Vikramankadeva Charita by Bilhana.
Puranas and Smritis were finally compiled.
• Amarsimha wrote Amarkosha. Prose

Literary Activities in Ancient India • Daskumarecharita by Dandin.

• Vasvadaffa by Subhandu.
• Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th century B.C.), the earlier • Brihat Kathamanjari by Kshemendra
grammar was called Bhagavati Sutra. • Kathasaritasagar by Somadeva.
• Mahabhashya by Patanjali, a commentary on • Panchatantra by Vishnu Shama,
Astadhyayi. • Hiloodersha by Narayan Pandit.
• Manu Smirti is a law book composed between 200
B.C. and A.D. 200. Others
• Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with statecraft, a
• Kamasutra and Arya Manjushree by Vatsyayana
major source of Mauryan administration
• Pavandhoof by Dhoyi.
• Indica was written by Megasthenes, a source of
• Swapnavasvadatta by Bhasa.
Mauryan society and administration
• Matavilasa Prasana by Mahendravarman L.
• Chanda Sutra was written by Pingala.
• Si-yu-ki- by Hiuen Tsang.
• Buddha Chanta was written by Asvaghosha, life
• Fo-Kuoki by Fa-hion.
history of Buddha in Pali.
• Pancha Sidhantika by Varahmihir.
• Saundarmanda was written by Asvaghosha.
• Surya Sidhantika and Aryabhattiyam by Aryabhatta.
• Saripurtra Prakarana was written by Asvaghosha.
• Nitisara by Kanandaka.
• Vajrasuch and Sutralankara were written by
• Charak Samhita by Charaka.
Asvaghosha.
• Hastayurveda by Palkapya
• Kumar Sambhava was written by Kalidas. The theme
• Mitakshara is a commentary on law book of
is the marriage of Lord Siva and Uma; and the birth of
Yajnavalkya by Vignaneswara.
Kartikeya.
• Dayabhaga is a treatise on inheritance by
• Raghuvamsa was written by Kalidas.
Jimulvahana.
• Naised Charita was written by Sri Harsha, contains
• Sidhanta Siromani by Bhaskarcharya.
story of Nala and Damayanti.
• Nighantu by Dhanvantri.
• Shishupala Vadha was written by Magha.
• Mudrarakshasha by Vishakhadatta.
Drama • Prabhanda Chintamani by Merutunga.
• Geography of India by Ptolemy.
• Natyashashtra by Bharat, earliest known work of • Parshistapa/vana by Hemachandra,
Sanskrit • Brhat Katha Kosh by Harisena.
• Malvikagnimitra by Kalidas. Vikramturvashi by • Kavya umansa and Prabandhakosha by Rajshekhar
Kalidas. • Mrichkatika by Sudraka.
• Abhigyanshakuntalam by Kalidas. • Prithiviraya Vijaya by Jayanak.
• Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda by • Nala Vemba by Pugalendi.
Harshavardhan.

©AKS IAS www.aksias.com 21

Art • Dasavatara temple at Deograh and the brick temple
at Bhitargaon are square temples with the low squat
• The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian Shikhara (tower) above.
temple architecture.
• The stone sculpture of Nara Narayana from Dasavatar
• Temple No. XVII at Sanchi; Kankali Devi Temple at
temple is fabulous.
Tigawa; and Vishnu and Varsha temple at Eran are flat • Another master piece is the two meter high bronze
roofed, square temples with a shallow pillared porch image of Buddha recovered from Sultanganj near
in the front: Bhagalpur. Gupta stone sculpture art was related to
• The Parvati temple of Nachna Kuthara and the Siva the Mathura school.
Temple at Bhumara are flat roofed square temples • Painting reached its zenith in the Ajanta paintings.
with a covered ambulatory around the Sanctum. "The dying prince', 'mother and child', etc. are master
pieces.
VAKATAKAS & PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY

• The Vakataka kingdom was founded by • The later history is known from the account of Hiuen
Vindhyashakci, who was succeeded by his son Tsang who wrote Si-pu-k.
Pravanasena I. • He ruled a vast territory comprising eastern Punjab,
• The Vakataka king Rudrasena II married Prabhavati Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa. He is
Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II. After the reported to have led an expedition to Kashmir from
death of Rudrasena II. the administration was carried where he carried forward to the tooth relic of
on by Prabhavati Gupta as the agent of her minor son. Buddha.
• It is said that the caves XVI and XVII and the Chairya • In eastern India he faced opposition from the Shaivite
cave XIX of Ajanta belong to the Vakataka age. King Sasanka of Gauda, but his death in AD. 619 put
an end to his hostility.
Yasodharman • He was defeated by Chalukyan King Pulakesin II in
• He belonged to the Aulikara family which probably A.D. 634.
ruled upto the beginning of sixth century, A.D.
Administration
• He defeated Mihirkula according to his Mandsor
inscription. • The empire was administrated on almost the same
lines as that of the Guptas except thar Harsha's
Age of Harsha
administration had become more feudal and
• Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Pushyabhuti decentralised.
Dynasty. • Land grants to officers in lieu of their salary were
• The fourth king Prabhakarvardhan assumed the title probably started by Harsha on a considerable scale.
of Maharajadhiraja. His daughter Rajyashree was • Harsha assumed the title of the king of Magadha, and
married to the Maukhari king Grahavarman of maintained diplomatic relations with China.
Kannauj. Religion
• Sasanka king of Gauda advanced towards the west
and in alliance with the king of Mawa, Devagupta, • A Shaiva in the beginning, he gradually embraced
defeated and killed the Maukhari king Grahavarman Buddhism.
and imprisoned his queen Rajyashree. • He held two grand assemblies-one in the city of
• Harsha made Kannauj the seat of power from where Kannauj and the other at Prayag known as
he extended his authority in all directions. In the "Mahamoksha Parishad'.
beginning he contended himself with the modest title • The Kannauj assembly was summoned to honour
of "Rajaputra Siladitya'. Hiuen Tsang and publicise the Mahayana form of
• Hieun Tsang mentions the Vallabhi King Dhruvasena Buddhism. The assembly was attended by
II as Harsha's son in law. He also attended the Bhaskarvarman and kings of twenty countries.
religious assembly called by Harsha at Prayag. The • Ban Bhatta wrote Harshcharita and Kadambari. Other
Vallabhis remained a strong power during the reign scholars included Matanga. Divakar, Jayasena and
of Harsha. Bhartrihari.
• The carly history of Harsha's reign is reconstructed by • Harsha founded the Harsha era in A.D. 606.
his biography 'Harshacharita' written by his court
poet Banabhatt.

22
 The Chalukya of Badami (Vatapi)

• In A.D. 535 Pulkeshin I founded a small kingdom • This was the beginning of the Kingdom of eastern
with the capital are Vatapipura (modern Badami). Chalukyas or the Chalukyas of Vengi.
• The next notable king was Pulakeshin II. A long • The Pallava king Narsimhavarman routed and killed
inscription on the walls of a Jain temple in Aihole him and adopted the title of Vatapikonda or the
gives an account of his reign (Aihole Prasasti by conqueror of Vatapi.
Ravikinci). • Vikramaditya I, son of Pulkeshin II, re-established
• The greatest achievement of Pulkeshin II was the his authority over the whole kingdom and defeated
defeathe inflicted on Harshvardhana. three successive Pallava kings and captured Kanchi.
• He annexed the region between the Krishna and He also defeated the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
Godavari (Vengi) from the Palavas and placed them • The Rashtrakutas defeated Kirtivarman, who was
under his brother Vishnuvardhana. the final ruler of the dynasty. Thus, in 757 AD, the
rule of the Chalukyas was brought to an end.

The Pallavas
• Simhavishnu was the founder of the Pallava • He sent an expedition to Ceylon to reinstate
dynasty . Sinhalese prince Manaverma.
• Mahendravarman I was called Martavilasa. • He erected the Rachas at Mahabalipuram (seven
• He wrote Marcavilasa Prahasanna. He gave up Pagodas).
Jainism and took up Shaivism under the influence • Parmeshwara Varman built the temple at Kanchi.
of Appar. • Narsimha Varman II adopted the title of Rajsinha.
• Narsimhavarman I was called Mahamalla which • Dandin, the author of Dasakumarcharita, lived in
means á wrestler. He defeated Pulkashin II and his court.
adopted the title Vatapikondı. • He built the Kailashnath Temple and shore temple
at Mahabalipuram.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

• Dantidurga who was a feudatory of Chalukyan • Amoghvarsha I fought with castern Chalukyas
king Vikramaditya II founded the Rashtrakuta and Gangas.
dynasty in A.D. 753 He made Manyakhet or • Kavirajamarga was written by him. It is regarded
Malkhed as his capital. as the earliest Kannada work on poctics.
• He was succeeded by Krishna I who gave a final Presnodarmulika was also written by him.
blow to Pallavas. • Indira III defeated Pratihara Mahipala I.
• Dhruva defcated Dharmapala and Nagbhatt II. • Krishna I built the famous Kailashnath temple at
• Govinda III also made incursions to north India Ellora.
and defeated Pala King Dharmapala and wrested • Krishna III defeated the Chola king Purantaka I
Malwa from Pratihara Nagabhatt. in the battle of Takkolam

THE PRATIHARAS

• The Pratibaras are also called Gurjara Pratiharas • The tripartite struggle for the control of Kannauj
belonging to the 36 clans of Rajputs. began during the reign of Nagabhat's successor
• The dynasty was founded by Nagabhatt II who is Vatsaraj.
known for checking the invasion of the Arabs. He • The Pragiharas recovered under Bhoja I or Mihir
was defeated by the Rashtrakuta King Dhruv. Bhoja who was enthroned in Mahodaya Nagar
(Kannauj) in A.D. 836.

23
• Mihir Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and Bhrinjika, Prapanch Panda and Bhuwan Koch
adopted the title "Adivarla". Harvilas, etc.
• Mahendrapala extended his power over • During Mahmud Ghazni's raid on Kannauj.
Magadha and Bengal. His court was adorned by Rajyapala Hed from the battlefield and was
Rajshekhar who wrote Kapurmanjar, Kavya murdered by Vidyadahra Chandella.
Mimansa, Bal Ramayana, Bal Bharat, Vidhsaal, • Yashpal was the last ruler of this dynasty. By A.D.
1090 the Garhwalas conquered Каппайј.

THE PALAS

• The Pala Empire was founded by Gopal in A.D. • Devapala who succeeded Dharmapala in A.D.
750 when he was elected the king by notable 810 extended his control over Prayagiyotishpur
men of the realm during a period of anarchy or (Assam) and parts of Orissa and Nepal. He
'Matsa Nyaya'. He founded Odantapuri. claimed victory over the Huns.
• The Palas displaced the Later Guptas of Magadha • He preferred Monghyr to Pataliputra as the seat
and the Khadga dynasty of eastern Bengal. of his 'Camp of Victory.
• He was succeeded by Dharmapala in A.D. 780. • The Pala power was destroyed by Vijaysena who
• Suleiman visited his kingdom and called the Pala founded the Sena dynasty.
kingdom Ruhma (Dharma). Dharmapala founded
the Sompur and Vikramshila University and gave
200 villages as grant to revive the Nalanda
University.
Table 1.17 Famous Writers and Patrons

King Dynasty Writers

Dharmapala Palas Haribhadra
Ramapala Palas Sandhyakar, Nandi
Mahendrapala I Pratibaras Rajashekhar
Amoglivarsha Rasharakuta Jinasen, Mahaviracharya
Govindchandra Gadhawalas Laximidhar
Jaichand Gadhawalas Sri Harsha
Yasovarman - Vakapatiraja
Laxman Sena Senas Jaidev, Dhoyi, Halayudh
Vakapati Munj Parmars Padmagupta, Dhanajaya

THE SENAS

• The Senas of Bengal called themselves Kshatriya, • Vijayseria was succeeded by his son Ballalsena. He
Brahma Kshatriya and were original inhabitants of conquered Mithila and portion of eastern Bihar.
Dakshinpatha. • Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshamana Sena
• Vijaysena founded the dynasty by defeating the who defeated Jayachandra of the Gadhwala
last Pala Ruler Madanpala. In A.D. 1095 he dynasty. During his reign Mohd. Bil Bakhtiyar Khalji
conquered Vanga by defeating Bhojavarman. made a sudden raid and captured Nadia.
• The Senas had a capital in Vikrampura and another • Around the middle of 13th century, the Senas were
in Vijaypura, modern India. overthrown by the Deva dynasty
THE CHOLAS
• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola Empire. Takkolam. His son Rajaditya lost his life in the
He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. battle.
• Parantaka I captured Madurai but he was routed • Sundarchola, also known as Parantaka II,
by Rashtrakuta Krishna III at the battle of wrested Tondaimandalam from the

24
 Rashtrakutas and fought a battle with the line founded by Vijayalaya ended with
Pandyas. Adhirjendra. . The next king belonged to the
• Rajaraja I (985–1014) adopted the titles of eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He was Kollutunga I.
Arumolivarman, Mummadi Chodadeva, • He united the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi with
Jaykonda, Martand Chola, Mumabi Chola, the Cholas. Hence, the subsequent history is
Keralnath, Singhaltank, Pandakulashini, etc. known as Chola-Chalukyan history.
• Various dynasties were defeated by him, • Kollutunga I discarded wars and worked for
including the Cheras, Chalukyas and the Gangas. peace. He was called Sangam Tavritta or
The control of Madurai was wrested from the abolisher of tolls. He liberated Sri Lanka. In 1077
Pandayas. Northern Ceylon was also conquered he sent an ambassador to China. The noted
by him, and he named Polonnaruva its capital, in writer Kamban adorned his court.
place of Anuradhapur. The Maldives were also • The Cholas were supplanted by the Pandyas of
conquered by him. . Madurai.
• He built the Brihadeshwar temple at Tanjore
Local Self Government
which is also called the Rajarajeshwar temple.
• Rajendra I succeeded Rajaraja I. • The Uttarmerur inscription of Dantivarman
• Rajendra I completed the victory over Ceylon Pallava and Parantaka I have thrown sufficient
and took its King Mahinda to the Chola Kingdom. light on the local self government of Cholas.
• A new Kingdom was founded by him after he • The assemblies were of three types.
defeated the Pandyas and Keralas. He placed this • The most common assembly of the villages was
new kingdom's capital at Madurai. Rajadhiraja, called ‘ur’; here, land was held by different
his son, was posted as the viceroy. castes. Tax-paying residents constituted this
• The Pala Ruler, Mahipal I, was defeated by him assembly.
when he led a conquest up north. The title of • The exclusive assembly of the Brahamanas was
Gangaikonda was taken up by him, he and called the ‘Sabha' or the Mahasabha'. These
created a new capital, which he named Brahmans resided in the agrahara villages, which
Gangaikondaacholapuram. A Shiva temple was were given to them through brahmadeya grants.
built by him over there and a tank called • The third type of assembly was the ‘Nagaram'
Chodagarg was excavated. and it was the assembly of merchants in the
• He also defeated the Shailendra or Srivijaya King towns.
Vijayatungavarman.
• He assumed the title of Pandita Chola, Art and Literature
Mudikondachola, Nigarilli Chola and • The Cholas continued with the Pallava
Gangikondachola. architectural style.
• He allowed Vijaytungavarman of the Shailendra • The Dravida style of architecture of the Cholas
dynasty to build the Chudamani Vihar at had certain special features. It included a viman,
Nagapattanam. mandap, gopuram, lion, pillars, bracket and
• Rajadhiraja I defeated the Pandyas, Keralas and composite pillars.
rulers from Sri Lanka. He sacked Kalyani and • The Gopuram style had developed under the
planted a Jaystambha at Yadgir. He had his Cholas.
Virabhishekha and assumed the title of Vijay • Rajaraja-I built the Rajarajeshwar temple at
Rajendra. He died in the battlefield while fighting Tanjore.
in the battle of Koppam against Someshwar I • The system of canals in south is a contribution of
Ahvamalla, the western Chalukyan King. the Cholas.
• Rajendra II was crowned in the battlefield. He • Rajendra-I built a Shiva temple at
defeated Someshwar, who drowned himself to Gangaikondacholapuram.
death. He planted a Jaystambha at Kolhapur. • The Cholas were famous for the bronze statue of
• Veer Rajendra defeated Someshwar II and Nataraja.
established a Vedic college of learning. • Kamban wrote Ramayana. Sivagasindamani was
• Adhirajendra had to face many rebellions and he also produced.
died while suppressing one of them. Thus the

25
 THE RAJPUTS

• With the breakup of the Pratihara Empire, the well • Mulraja II repulsed the attack of Muslims.
known Rajputs entered the scene in the Indian • In 1297, Alauddin Khalji conquered Gujarat and
history. made it part of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The four Agnikula Rajputs were the Parihara or
Gahadavalas of Kannauj
Pratiharas, the Chauhans, the Solankis and the
Pawars or Parmaras. • The Gahadavalas ruled in Kannauj from the third
quarter of the 11th Century,
Chauhans
• Chadradeva was the first great ruler of this dynasty.
• The Chauhans were feudatories of Prathihara till • Govindchandra defeated the Muslims and secured
Simharaja declared independence in the middle of the release of his father Madan Chandra.
the tenth century. His successor Vigraharaja II • Jayachandra suffered a defeat at the hands of the
defeated Mulraja I and overran Gujarat. king Lakshamanasena of Bengal. In 1193, Mohd.
• Ajayraja was on the throne of Sakambhari, the Ghori invaded the kingdom of the Gahadavalas and
capital in the first quarter of twelfth century. He defeated and killed Jaychandra in the battle of
founded the city of Ajaymeru (modern Ajmer). Chandawar.
• Prithviraj III began his reign in 1177. He defeated
Chandelas
Mohd. Ghori in the first battle of Tarain in 1191. In
1192 Mohd. Ghori defeated and executed • The Chandelas ruled in Bundelkhand.
Prithviraj Chauhan. • The dynasty was founded by Nanuka in the early
• Harihara regained Ajmer before 1194 but had to years of the ninth Century and his capital was
surrender to Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Khajuraho.
• Dhanga was the first independent king of the
Paramars
Chandela dynasty and assumed the title
• There were several branches of Paramaras. The ‘Maharajadhiraja'.
main branch ruled in Malwa with its capital at • He was succeeded by Ganda who in turn was
Dhara. succeeded by Vidyadhara.
• Upendra founded the Parmara dynasty of Malwa. • During Vidyadhara's reign Mahmud of Ghazni
• Munja also known as Utpala and Vakapatiraja II invaded Kalinjar in 1019 and again in 1022. He
was a great general. could not capture the fort and had to retire on
• Bhoja was the greatest king of the Parmara friendly terms.
dynasty. • In 1165, Parmadideva was defeated by Prithviraj
• In A.D. 1008, Bhoja sent an army to help the Shahi Chauhan. Afterwards, Qutub-ud din Aibak
ruler Anandapala of Punjab against Mahmud of defeated Parmadideva and occupied a greater part
Ghazni. In A.D. 1043 he joined a confederacy of of Bundelkhand.
Hindu chiefs after conquering Muslim territories. • Finally, Alauddin Khalji captured the whole of the
kingdom.
Chalukyas of Gujarat
OTHER IMPORTANT DYNASTIES
• The dynasty was founded by Mularaja I in
Anhilpataka around A.D. 942. Tomars of Delhi
• Bhima I was the grandson of Mulraja. During his
• Delhi was established by the Tomars in A.D. 736.
reign in A.D. 1025, Mahmud Ghazni overran
• In the beginning, Tomars remained feudatory of
Gujarat and plundered Somnath. He was
Pratiharas. Afterwards they became independent.
succeeded by his son Karan in A.D. 1064.
• Chauhan Vigraharaja III took the Tomars under his
• Jaisimha Siddharaja won many battles.
suzerainty.
• Kumarpala ascended the throne in A.D. 1143.
• Having come under the influence of the Jaina
teacher Hemachandra, he embraced Jainism. He
reformed the laws and stopped gambling and other
evil practices.
26
Hindushahi Dynasty was against Yasovarman of Kannauj. He built the
famous Sun temple of Martand.
• It was founded by the Brahmana minister of Shahi
• Utapala dynasty was founded by Avantivarmana.
dynasty named Kallar in the second half of the 9th
This dynasty was famous for Queen Didda who
Century A.D.
ruled between A.D. 980 and 1003.
• In Rajatarangini, Kallar has been referred to as
• Sangramaraja founded the Lohara dynasty.
‘Laliyashahi' and described as one of the most
powerful rulers of North India. Yadvas of Devagiri
• He shifted his capital from Kabul to Udbanda.
• The dynasty was founded by Bhillama. He also
• In late tenth century, Jayapala became the ruler of
founded the city of Devgiri which was their capital.
the Hindushahi dynasty.
• His son Singhana was the greatest ruler of this
• Jayapala, Anandapala, Trilochanpala and
dynasty and made extensive conquest in the North
Bhimapala fought against Subuktigin and Mahmud,
and South.
rulers of Ghazni. The kingdom was destroyed by
Mahmud of Ghazni in the beginning of the twelfth Kakatiyas of Warangal
century A.D.
• The Kakatiyas were the feudatories of Chalukyas.
Kingdom of Kashmir • Rudra III inflicted final blow on Chalukyan Taila III
and declared his independence.
• Kalhan wrote history of Kashmir, Rajatarangini, in
the twelfth Century. Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra
• Naga Karkta dynasty was founded by Durlabh
Vardhana. During his rule, Hiuen Tsang visited • The dynasty was founded by Naripakana.
Kashmir. • King Ballal II of this dynasty declared his
• Lalitaditya Muktapida proved to be the most independence shortly after A.D. 1189 when the
illustrious king of this dynasty. His main success Chalukyan Someshwar IV was overthrown by the
Yadara Bhillama V and ruled till 1220 A.D.
Table 1.18 Popular Names (Ancient India)

Known As Name Known As Name

Kunik Ajatashatru Vikramaditya/Sakari Chandragupta II
Shrenik Bimbisar Siladitya Harshavardhana
Agrasen Mahapadmananda Traveller's Prince Hiuen Tsang
Sarvakshatrantaka Mahapadmananda Vatapikonda Narsimhavarman
Agramense Dhanananda Maduraikonda Parvantaka
Sendrokottus Chandragupta Maurya Parmeswar Pulkeshin II
Androkottus Chandragupta Maurya Nirpatunga Amoghvarsa
Amitradhat Bindusara Vichitrachita, Mattavilasha Mahadravarman I
Devanampiya Priyadarsi Ashoka Lord of five Indies Harshvardhana
Shakespeare of India Kalidasa Purandar Lord Indra
Oxford of India Nalanda Saklottrapathnath Harshvardhan

Pandyas of Madurai lost his life in the battle. He invaded Ceylon and
captured its northern parts.
• The Pandyan power was received by Kadungon
• Maravarman Kulsekhara Pandya finally annexed
in the last quarter of the 6th Century. King
the Chola country to his dominion.
Arikeshari Maravarmana extended his kingdom.
• After a brief eclipse, Maravarman Sunder
Pandaya revived the fortune of the Pandyas.
• Jatavarman Sunder Pandya forced Rajendra
Chola III to acknowledge his supremacy. He
defeated the Hoysalas whose king Someshwar

27
 Table 1.19 Various Eras
S.No Era Started in Feature(s)
1. Vikram Samvata 57 B.C. Traditionally, it was founded by a king named
Vikramaditya, who drove the Sakas out of Ujjayini and
founded the year to celebrate his victory.
2. Saka Samvata A.D. 78 Traditionally, founded by a Saka king who occupied Ujjayini
135 years after Vikramaditya. This year may, in fact, have
been founded by Kushana ruler Kanishaka. This is also our
national calendar.
3. Gupta A.D. 319 Founded by Gupta ruler Chandragupta I.
4. Valabhi Samvat A.D. 319 This year has been mentioned by Al beruni. It was used in
Gujarat and was co-terminus with the Gupta war.
5. Kalchuri Chedi A.D. 248 Founded by Abhira ruler Isvarasena.
6. Harsha Samvat A.D. 606 Founded by Harshavardhana of Kan yakubja.
7. Hijaral Samvat A.D. 622 Founded by Prophet Muhammad. Marks Hijarat or
migration from Mecca to Medina.
8. Ilahi Samvat A.D. 1584 A solar calendar, founder by Akbar, to replace lunar Hijarai
Samvata.

• The Arabs became the first Muslims to attack India, • Mahmud of Ghazni's court included the presence
after laying their eyes on the rich land. of Alberuni. The famous treatise Kitab-ul-hind', was
• After certain pirates of Debal angered him, Al- authored by him. The author of Shahnama and
Hajjaj, who was the governor of Iraq, sent Mohd. Utbi, Firdausi, was also a part of his court.
Bin Qasim in A.D. 712. in order to punish the ruler • Bhima I, the Chalukyan ruler of Gujarat repaired
of Sind, who was called the Dhair. . the Somnath Temple after it was destroyed by
• Subuktgin, the Ghaznavid ruler attacked Jaypala, Mahmud. His general, Vimal built the Vimal Vasahi
the Shahiya ruler of Sind. temple at Mount Abu.
• After Subuktgin, Mohmud Ghazni became the king • Mohd. Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan in
in A.D. 1001. He defeated Jayapala. A.D. 1191 in the first Battle of Tarain. In A.D. 1192,
• Anandapala succeeded Jaypala but in A.D. 1008 he in the second Battle of Tarain, Mohd. Ghori
was defeated by Mahmud in the famous Battle of defeated and killed Prithviraj Chauhan.
Waihind. • Qutub-ud-din Aibak, the slave of Mohd. Ghori,
• In 1014, Mahmud took Thaneshwar and burnt the captured Aligarh and Ranthambhor in A.D. 1195.
temple of Mathura. In 1018, he sacked Kannauj. • He defeated the Chandela ruler Parmadideva and
• In 1022–23 he received submission of Gwalior and captured Bundelkhand, Kalinar, Mahoba and
Kalinjar. Khajuraho.
• In 1025 he destroyed the Somnath Temple in • His general Bakhityar Khalji attacked Bihar and
Kathiawar. destroyed the Universities of Nalanda and
• Between A.D. 1000 and 1026 he made 17 Vikramshila.
incursions into India.
Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526)
Slave Dynasty (1206-90) • After the death of Mohd. Ghori, there ensued a
struggle for supremacy between Tajuddin Yaldoz,
Qutub-ud-din Aibek
Nasiruddin Qabacha and Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
• This dynasty is also called the Yamini or IIbari Turk • Qutub-ud-din was crowned unofficially on 25 June
dynasty. 1206.

28
• His capital was at Lahore. He was known as ‘Lakh Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246–65)
baksh' for his magnanimity.
• In 1246, Nasiruddin Mahmud ascended the throne
• Hasan Nizami the famous historian adorned his
but the real power was in the hands of Balban.
court.
• Balban or Ulugh Khan (1246-86) was a member of
• He built the 'Quwat-ul-Islam' mosque and the
the Chahlgani or 'the forty founded by Ilturmish.
‘Arhai-din-ka Jhonpra’, first city of Delhi.
• Working on a conspiracy, the Turkish nobles ousted
• The building of Qutub Minar was started by him,
him as Naib, in 1250, and put an Indian Muslim,
and he built its first store. He was unable to
Imaduddin Raihan, in his position.
complete it as he died in 1210, during a game of
chaugan. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1265–86)
• Iltutmish, who succeeded Aibak, completed the
structure. It was constructed in the memory of the • Balban succeeded in gaining control after the death
Sufi saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. of Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1265.
After the death of Qutub-ud-din his inexperienced • The Diwan-i-arz, or the military department, was
and incapable son Aram Shah ascended the throne established by him in order to control the invasion
but he was deposed and Iltutmish was crowned the of the Mongol hordes.
new sultan. • He introduced the Iranian system of Sajda and
Paibos.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish • He traced his ancestry from Afrasiyab.
• He followed a policy of 'blood and iron' to suppress
• He was the real founder of Turkish dynasty in India.
the revolts. He destroyed the Mewati Rajput
• He refused to grant asylum to Jalaluddin
brigandage.
Mankbarni who entered India after being chased
• He called himself as the ‘zil-i-illahi or the shadow of
by Changiz Khan and hence saved the infant
God on earth and ‘Nasiramir-ul-momin' or caliphs
Turkish Kingdom from the wrath of Changiz Khan
right hand man.
and fury of Mongol hordes.
• He conferred upon his son Prince Mahmud the title
• In 1233, he attacked Malwa and captured Bhilsa.
of ‘Khan-i-Shahid' for repulsing a Mongol attack
He also conquered Gwalior and Jalore.
and laying down his life in the process.
• He issued a purely Arabic coinage in silver and
• He appointed his other son Bughra Khan as the new
introduced jital and rankas'. . He organised the
'turkan-i-chahalgani'. Governor of Bengal.
• He introduced the Persian Nauroz ceremony in the
• Minhas-us-siraj, his contemporary historian, has
court.
praised him.
• After Balban's death in 1286, Kayqubad (1287–90)
• Iltutmish declared Razia to be his successor but the
and Kayumars became sultans for a brief period.
Amir's disproving wishes put Rukunddin Firoz Shah
on the throne. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
• He was later executed and Razia became the
sultan. Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–96)

Razia Begum • Jalaluddin founded the Khalji dynasty.

• The attack of Mongols under Abdullah, was
• Razia appointed an Abyssinian slave Jalaluddin repelled and quashed by Jalaluddin Khalji. The
Yakut as the Amir-i- Akhur (Master of Royal Mongols then settled around Delhi and were
Stables). referred to as the 'New Musalmans'.
• The Turkish Amirs were jealous of his appointment. • A darvesh, called Sidi Maula, was crushed by an
Altuniya, the governor of Sirhind revolted. To settle elephant on the orders of the Sultan.
scores with the rebels, Razia went to the capital but • He was assassinated by his nephew and son-in-law
Yakut was murdered and she was imprisoned. Ali Gurshasp (Alauddin Khalji) near Kara.
• She won over Altuniya and married both of them
and made the last bid to recover Delhi but was Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
killed by Bahram near Kaithal. • During Jalaluddin's reign, Alauddin had captured
• The successor of Razia (1236-40) was Muizuddin Bhilsa, Devgiri and Chanderi.
Bahram Shah (1240–42) and Alauddin Masud Shah • The Mongol incursions were repulsed by Zafar
(1242-46). Khan during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
29
• Gujarat was captured by Alauddin in 1297 AD, • He was killed and succeeded by Nasiruddin
which had previously been ruled by Rai Karan. Khusrau Shah who became the only Hindu convert
Anhilwara and Somnath were sacked by him, and to sit on the throne of Delhi.
wedded Kamla Devi, who was the queen of Rai
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414)
Karan.
• Malik Kafur was captured by him and was taken to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–25)
the royal court.
• Ranthambhor which came under Hamirdeva, was • After murdering Khusrau Shah, Ghazi Malik or
conquered by him in 1300. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1320
• In 1303, Chittor, under Ratan Singh, was captured & ruled for five years.
because of his infatuation for Padmini, the queen • His son, Jauna Khan, also called Mohd. Bin Tughlaq,
of Ratan Singh. was sent by him to Warangal.
• Khizr Khan was installed as the Governor of Chittor, • A successful conquest of Jajnagar (Orissa) was led
and it was renamed as Khizrabad. by him.
• Malik Kafur attacked Devagiri in 1306-07, Hoysala • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq became the first Sultan to
in 1310, under Veer Ballala and Pandyas in 1311, begin irrigation works within his area.
under Veerpandya, in the Deccan region. In 1313, • He built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near
Devagiri was sacked again when its ruler, Delhi.
Sankardeva, was killed in an encounter. • After his death due to a collapse of a wooden
• In 1311, the title of Malik Naib was bestowed upon structure, Mohd. Bin Tughlaq ascended the throne
Malik Kafur. (1524-51).
• Allauddin adopted the title of Sikandar-i-Azam.' Muhammed Bin Tughlaq (1325–51)
• Amir Khusrau was given the title 'Tuti-i-Hind' or
Parrot of India. • Muhammed Bin Tughlaq (1324–51) has been
• Alauddin centralised his administration. dubbed as an ill started idealist.
• Barids (news reporters) and Munhiyan (Spies) were • Five experiments or campaigns have been
appointed to strengthen the spy system. mentioned by Ziauddin Barni.
• Social gathering of nobles, their matrimonial • He transferred his capital from Delhi to Devgiri
alliance, wine and gambling was prohibited. (Daultabad).
• In the military field he introduced the Dagh and • In 1330, he became the first Sultan to introduce
Chehra System. token currency (Bronze coin).
• Ariz-i-mammalik was made the head of Diwan-i- • After repulsing an attack on Mongol he planned to
Arz. occupy Khurasan and Iraq.
• He also introduced market reforms. Prices of goods • His Qarachill expedition was launched in the
were fixed. Kumaon hills to counter Chinese incursions. His
• The Diwan-i-Riyasat had three markets viz. army suffered heavy setbacks.
• Shana-i-mandi (grain market), • He instituted agricultural reforms. He fixed the land
• Sarai-i-adi (cloth and groceries market) and revenue at half the produce.
• 0 Market for cattle, horses and slaves. • He had setup a separate department called 'Diwan-
• The Alai Minar, Alal Darwaza, City of Siri, Mahal i-amir-kohi'.
Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque come • He encouraged the farmers to grow superior crops
under Alauddin's constructional achievements. and gave sondhar loans to them.
• He became the first Delhi Sultan to fix the land Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)
revenue in cash.
• Mohammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by Firoz
Mubarak Khalji (1316–20) Shah Tughlaq (1351–88).
• After Alauddin' death, his son Mubarak Khalji • He led two unsuccessful campaigns in Bengal.
ascended the throne. • He led a campaign against Jajnagar and desecrated
• He was the first Sultan who declared himself the the Jwalamukhi Temple during his Nagarkot
Khalifa and took the title ‘Al-wasiq Billah'. campaign.
• Earlier he had destroyed the Jagannath Puri
Temple.

30
• 1300 manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi Temple Governor of Multan, who founded the Saiyyad
were translated from Sanskrit to Persian by Dynasty in 1414.
Arizuddin Khan under the title ‘Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi'. • He claimed his descendant from the prophet. . His
• He refused to exempt the Brahmins from Jaziya. successor Mubarak Shah was the protagonist of
• Inhuman punishments were banned under him, Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindis Tarikh-i-mubarak
and he also forbade Muslim women to worship in Shahi.
the grave of saints. • The last Saiyyad, Alauddin Alam Shah, was
• He organised the 'Diwan-i-Bandagan' (department defeated by Bahlol Lodhi who founded the Lodhi
of slaves). dynasty.
• He built cities like Hissar, Firoza, Firozabad and
Lodhis (1451-1526)
Jaunpur.
• Asokan Pillars from Topara and Meerut were • The Lodhis were the first Afghans to rule India.
brought to Delhi. • Bahlol Lodhi (1451–89) annexed the Sharqi Empire
• He built a number of canals (i) Sirsa to Hansi; (ii) and introduced the Bahloli copper coin.
Sutlej to Dipalpur; (iii) Yamuna to Sirmur. • He was succeeded by Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517).
• During his reign, Kharaj (10% of produce); zakat His mother was a Hindu Goldsmith's daughter.
(alms for Muslims); jaziya; khams (20% of spoils of • He introduced a new measurement yard called
war); and sharb (irrigation tax) were levied. 'gazz-i-sikandari'. He also founded Agra in 1504.
• He built the ‘Diwan-i-Khairat' and 'Dar-ul-shafa' or • He wrote Persian verses under the name Gulrukhi.
a charitable hospital. • Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26) succeeded him.
• His wazir was Khan-i-Jahan II as he had made the • Rana Sanga of Mewar defeated him.
post hereditary. • Babur also defeated him in 1526, in the Battle of
• He repaired the Qutub Minar which had been Panipat.
struck by lightning. • Daulat Khan Lodi, the Governor of Punjab, invited
• The chief architect of Firoz was Ghazi Shahna. babur.
• He wrote Fautuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
• Later Tughlaqs Administration
• After Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Muhammad Khan and • Sultan: The title of Sultan was started by the
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II, Abu Baqr, Nasiruddin Turkish rulers. Mohammad Ghazni was the first to
Muhammad, Humayun and finally Nasiruddin assume the title of Sultan. They ruled in the name
Mahmud ascended the throne. of the caliph.
• Nasiruddin Mahmud gave Malik Sarvar the title of • Amirs: A group of 40 Amirs called Chahalgani was
“Malik-us-Sharq'. The latter founded the Sharqi dominant during Iltutmish's reign. Balban crushed
Dynasty in Jaunpur. their power.
• During Nasiruddin Mahmud's reign Timur invaded • Wazir: He was the Prime Minister, leading the
India in 1398. Diwan-i-wizarat, which dealt in income and
Saiyyad Dynasty (1414–51) expenditure.
• Majumdar: He gave loans so that the income and
Khizr Khan (1414–21) expenditure was balanced.
• Zawabit: State laws
• Post Mahmuds death, Daulat Khan Lodhi became
• Jahandari: Laws made by Sultan
the Sultan but he was defeated by Khizr Khan,
Departments during Sultanate

Department Functions
Diwan-i-waquf Documents of income and expenditure
Diwan-i-mustakharaj Arrears from collectors and agents
Diwan-i-rasalat Appeals
Diwan-i-arz Military
Diwan-i-insha Correspondence
Diwan-i-bandagan Slaves
Diwan-i-Amir-kholi Agriculture
Diwan-i-ishitiqaq Charity and mint
31
 Officers during Sultanate

Mustaufi-i-Mamalik The Auditor General to check expenditure

Mushrif-i-Mamalik The Accountant General
Sadr-us-Sadr Head of Diwan-i-Risalat
Muftis Expounded Quranic Law
Muhatsib Censor of public morals
Khazain The Treasurer
Barids Intelligence agents
Waqia Navis News reporters
Wakil Controlled royal household
Kotwal Police officer

Table 1.20 Financial Terms

Terms Meaning

Kharaj Land tax from Hindu chiefs and land lords

Khalisa Crown lands
Iqtas Land granted to followers and officers (usually military)
Muqta Holders of Iqta
Khams One fifths of spoils of war
Abwabs Cesses
Ghari House tax
Gharai Grazing tax
Kismat-i-khoti Cess by headmen for themselves
Zakat Alms tax on Muslims only
Ghanima Plunder of war (4/5)
Muzari Peasant
Balahars Khut Muquddams Village menials and headmen of villages
Sondhar Loans granted by Mohd. Bin Tughlaq
Waqf Land grant to religious
Milk or Inam Land granted to grantees perpetually
Khet Batai Land revenue fixed on the basis of standing crop
Lank Batai Without separating the grain from the chaff
Ras Batai After separating the grain from the chaff
Masahat On the basis of measurement of land
Nasq On the basis of estimate
Muqtai Mixed System

Architecture • Tomb of Iltutmish: It is near Quwat-ul-Islam

• Quwatul-Islam: The structure was raised on the Mosque.
plinth of a Hindu temple. Qutub du-din Aibek built • Sultan Garhi: It was built by Iltutmish on the grave
it. It is the first mosque in India built on Indo-Islamic of his son Nasiruddin Mahmud.
pattern. • Balban's tomb: It is situated near Qila-i-rai-pithora.
• Arhai-din-ka Jhonpra : It was built by Qutub-ud-din • Alai Darawaja: It was built by Alauddin Khalji.
Aibek in Ajmer. It was a Sanskrit college in the • Siri: The second city of Delhi was built by Alauddin
beginning. Khalji.
• Qutub Minar : It was built in the memory of Sheikh • Hauz Khas: It was built by Alauddin Khalji.
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki by Qutub-ud-din Aibek. • Mahal Hazaar Satoon: It was built by Alauddin
Aibek could build only one storey. It was completed Khalji.
by Illtutmish. • Jamait Khana Mosque: It was built by Alauddin
Khalji.
32
• Tughlaqabad: The third city of Delhi was built by • Sultan Mahmud, the last Tughlaq king, conferred
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. on Malik Sarwar, the title of Malik-ush-Shark (Chief
• Jahanpanah: The fourth city of Delhi was built by of the East) and appointed him as the Governor of
Mohd. Bin Tughlaq. the Eastern province.
• Firozabad: The fifth city of Delhi was built by Firoz • Taking advantage of the invasion of Timur, he
Shah Tughlaq. founded the Sharqi Dynasty of Jaunpur.
• Tomb of Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul: It was an octagonal • Jaunpur was absorbed in the kingdom of Delhi by
tomb built by Jauna Shah in 1368. Sikandar Lodhi. Thus, the line of Sharqi Kings of
• Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi: It has a double dome. Jaunpur came to an end.
• For its promotion of learning and culture Jaunpur
Regional Architecture earned the title of “Siraz of India' or 'Siraz of the
• Atala Devi Masjid: It was built by Ibrahim Shah East.'
Sharqi in Jaunpur. Its special feature is that it has
no minaret of the usual type. Gujarat
• Mandu: It has Hushang Shah's tomb, Jami Masjid, • Gujarat was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate by
Hindola Mahal, Jahaz Mahal. Alauddin in 1297.
• Adina Masjid: It was built by Sikandar Shah in • Muzaffar Shaha founded the Muzaffari dynasty in
Pandua. Gujarat.
• Chota Sona Masjid: It was built by Wali Mahummad • Ahmad Shah founded the city of Ahmadabad and
in the reign of Hussain Shah in Gaur. shifted his capital from Patan to Ahmadabad.
• Bara Sona Masjid: It was built by Nusrat Shah in • Mahmud Begra (1449–1511) was the grandson of
Gaur. Ahmad Shah. He had conquered Girnar and
• Qadam Rasul: It is in Ahmedabad. Champaner.
• Jami Masjid: Gulbarga. • He allied with the Egyptians against the
• Chand Minar: Daultabad Portuguese. He defeated Dom Lauranco but was
• College of Mahmud Gawan: Bidar . later defeated by the Portuguese.
• Gol Gumbad: Tomb of Mohammad Adil Shah, • Bahadur Shah's master gunner Rumi Khan helped
Bijapur him to conquer Chittor. The Portuguese drowned
• Ibrahim Rauza: Tomb of Ibrahim II. Bahadur Shah.
• In the reign to Muzaffar III, Akbar annexed Gujarat
OTHER PARTS OF INDIA to his empire.
Malwa
• In 1406, Alp Khan ascended the throne with the Bengal
title of Hushang Shah. He made Mandu his capital. • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had divided Bengal into
• He died in 1435 and was buried in a marble tomb Lakhauti, Sonargaon and Satgon.
at Mandu. • Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah had diplomatic relations
• Mahmud Khalji fought with Rana Kumbha of with China and was famous for imparting justice.
Chittor. Both sides claimed victory. • Raj Ganesh of Kans usurped the throne for a brief
• While the Rana erected a tower of victory in period. He was ousted by Ibrahim Shah.
Chittor, the Sultan of Malwa built a seven storied • Alauddin Hussain Shah began the Satyapir
column at Mandu to commemorate his triumph. Movement. His court was adorned by Rupa and
• Sultan Ghiyasuddin was defeated by Rana Rajmal Sanatan. Maladhar Basu wrote Srikrishna Vijay and
of Chittor. He built the Jahaz Mahal. was given the title of ‘Gunaraja Khan'.
• Mohd. Khalji II made Medini Rai his wazir. He was • He patronised Chaitanya.
killed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. • Bengal was annexed by Akbar in A.D. 1575.
• Bazbahadur fell in love with Rupamati and was
noted for his gift of music and poetry. Kashmir
• In 1562, Malwa was annexed to the Mughal Empire • It was ruled by Shah Mirza.
by Akbar. • Sikandar was an iconoclast, for which he came to
be known as 'Butshikan'. He sought to enforce the
Jaunpur policy of religious conversion and many temples
The city of Jaunpur was founded by Firoz Tughlaq. during his reign were desecrated. He abolished the
cruel practice of Sati.
33
• Zainul Abidin was benevolent, liberal and • Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur in Khanwah in
enlightened. 1528.
• He was the first sultan in India to abolish the
“Jaziya' or poll tax on non-Muslims. Marwar
• He recalled the Brahmans who had fled Kashmir
due to Sikandar's bigotry. • Rao Jodha built the Jodhpur and Mandsor fort.
• He is called the 'Akbar of Kashmir' and built the • Malik Raja founded the Farqui dynasty. Nasir Khan
Zaina Lake. built Burhanpur.
• In 1588, Akbar annexed Kashmir.

Mewar
• Rana Kumbha built the victory tower to
commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khaliji of
Malwa.
• His court was adorned by Mandan, who wrote
many books on architecture like Prasad Mandan,
Rupa Mandan, etc. Rana Sanga defeated Mahumud
II of Malwa.
Vijaynagar Empire
Table 1.21 Vijaynagar Empire
Dynasty Year Founder
Sangam Dynasty 1336–1485 Harihar and Bukka
Saluva Dynasty 1485-1505 Saluva Narsimha
Tuluv Dynasty 1505-56 Vira Narsimha
Arvidu Dynasty 1556–1672 Tirumala

Sangam Dynasty (1336–1485 A.D.) Ummatur, Pratap Rudra of Orissa, Yusuf Adil
Shah and Ismail Adil Shah.
• It was founded by Harihar and Bukka in A.D.
• He led campaigns against them, and was quite
1336. They had earlier served under the Kakatiya
successful. Gulbarga and Bidar were invaded by
ruler of Warangal Prataprudra-II.
him. He also reinstalled the Bahmani Sultan to
• Harihara I annexed Hoysala and Kadamba
the throne and bestowed the title of
kingdoms. His wife Ganga Devi wrote Madura
'Yavanasthopanachrya' upon himself.
Vijayam.
• He was known as ‘Abhinava Bhoja', 'Andhra
• During the period of Bukka I the tussle with
Bhoja”. He wrote Amuktamalayada in Telegu and
Bahamanid Sultans started. He fought with the
Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit.
Bahamanid Sultan Muhammad Shah I.
• His court was adorned by the Astadiggajas.
• 10,000 Muslims were inducted by him in his
Pedanna wrote Manucharitam and was awarded
army, and he became the first king of
the title 'Andhra Pitamaha'. Tenalirama wrote
Vijayanagar to do so. Feroz Shah began an
Pandurnge Mahamatyam.
invasion during his time.
• He built a new city Nagalapuram, Hazara Temple
• Devaraya II had various names like Gajabetekara,
and Vithalswamy Temple.
Proudha, Devraya, etc. He authored a
• During Sadashiva Raya’s reign, his Minister Rama
cơmmentary on the Braham sutra.
Raya controlled the power of the king. All the
• Abdur Razzaq visited his court.
Deccan Sultans got together, with the exception
Tuluva Dynasty (1505-56) of Berar, and in 1565 defeated Vijaynagar in the
renowned Battle of Talikota or Rakshasa
• The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Tangadi. The government of Vijayanagar was
Narsimha. then established at Penukonda, and later shifted
• Krishnadeva Rai had a number of chiefs under
him, who were in rebellion against him, namely,
34
 to Chandragiri. Venkat II established Chandragiri • Abdur Razzak: He was the ambassador of Sultan
as the capital. Shaha Rukh of Khurasan to the court of Devaraya
• Administration: The King was central to the II. He described Vijaynagar town and court. He
administration. He had a council of ministers to wrote Matlaus Saadain Wa Majmaul Bahrain.
advise him. • Domingos Paes: He visited Krishandeva Raya's
• The Empire was divided into several provinces court. Vijaynagar was the best provided city in
viz. Rajya, Mandala, Chavadi with subdivisions, the world. It was famous for diamonds.
such as Venthe, Nadu, Sima, Village, Sthala in • Fernoa Nuniz: A Portuguese, he visited during
Karnataka and Kottam, Parru, Nadu and Village Achyut Rai's reign. He wrote that kings of
in the Tamil portion. Vijaynagar even eat rats and lizards.
• Each province was under a Nayak. • Duarte Barbosa: He was a Portugese traveler
who made a visit to court of Krishnadeva Raya.
Travellers
• Athenasius Nikitin (1415): A Russian, he made a
• Nicolo Conti: He was a Venetian traveller who visit the Empire during the reign of Devaraya I,
visited during the reign of Devaraya 1. He and also authored the book Voyage to India.
described the city of Vijaynagar. He mentions
about Sati.

BAHMANI KINGDOM
• The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Zafar • Humayun Shah: He appointed Mahmud Gawan
Khan who took the title of AlauddinBahman as his prime minister. Gawan initiated many
Shah. He selected Gulbarga as its capital. reforms and was the 'de-fact ruler whose reign
• Firoz Shah went to war with Vijaynagar empire marks the peak time of the Bahamainds'.
on three occasions and lost Raichur and Doab. • With the death of Kalimullah, the last ruler, the
He had a spat with Gesu Daraz, the Sufi saint of dynasty came to an end.
Gulbarga also. • Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur was called Jagad
• Ahmad Shah Wali: He shifted his capital to Bidar. Guru.
He waged a successful war against Vijaynagar
and pushed back an invasion from Malwa.
Table 1.22 Bahmani Kingdom

Kingdom Dynasty Year Founder Annexation

Berar Imad Shahi 1484 Fataullah Imad Shah 1574, Ahmadnagar
Bijapur Adil Shahi 1489 Yusuf Adil Shah 1686, Aurangzeb
Ahmadnagar Nizam Shahi 1490 Malik Ahmad 1633, Shahjahan
Golkunda Qutub Shahi 1512 Quli Qutub Shah 1687, Aurangabad
Bedar Barid Shahi 1526 Amir Ali Barid

MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526–1707)

• He led five punitive expeditions in India from 1519
Babur to 1525.
• Taking advantage of the anarchical conditions
• Babur was the founder of Mughal Empire in India. under the Lodhis, Babur marched towards India
• His father was a petty chief of 'Fargana' in Central and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of
Asia. Panipat in 1526.
• He was a worthy descendent of Amir Timur, the • In this battle he used his famous Tulguma system
Turk (male line) and Changiz Khan (female line) of warfare to overwhelm his adversary.
• His family belonged to the 'Chagtai' section of the • He defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwah
Turkish race and was commonly known as in 1527.
Mughals. (C.S.P. Exam, 2015)

35
• Medini Rai was defeated by him in 1528. in • Ibadat Khana - 1575
Chanderi. In the Battle of Ghagra, in 1529, he • Din-i-illahi - 1582
defeated the Afghans.
• He was buried in Arambagh in Agra but, his body Akbar's Navratana or Nine Gems
was disinterred later and was shifted to Kabul. 1. Birbal
• Tuzuk-i-babri or Baburam, was his memoir, which 2. Abul Fazi
had been written by him in Turkish. Abdur Rahim 3. Todarmal
Khan-i-Khana, later translated into Persian. 4. Bhagwan Das
5. Tansen
Humayun 6. Man Singh
7. Abdur-Rahim-Khan-i-Khana
• Humayun (1530–56) succeeded Babur.
8. Mullah-do-pyaja
• His brother Kamran was made the Governor of 9. Faizi
Kabul. Qandhar and Punjab; Hindal was at Alwar
and Mewat: Askari ar Sambhal; and Mirza Sulaiman
• In 1576, the famous battle of Haldighati was fought
at Badakshan.
between Akbar and Rana Pratap. Man Singh and
• He defeated Mohammad Lodhi at Dauraha and laid
Asaf Khan led the Mughal forces in which Mughals
siege of Chunar Dauraha where Sher Khan (later
won.
Sher Shah) offered nominal submission.
• In 1581. Kabul was taken from Mirza Hakim.
• He built a new city Dinapanah.
Kandhar was incorporated in the Empire in 1595.
• Sher Shah defeated Humayun, 1539. at a place
Khandesh fell in 1593. Ahmadnagar was captured
called Chausa, near Buxar.
in 1600, even though strong resistance was put
• Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah once again at
forth by Chand Biwi. Akbar's last campaign was in
Kannauj.
1601, against Asirgarh.
• He came back from exile and captured Lahore in
• Abdur Rahim was given the title of Khan-i-Khana
1555 with the help of Bairam Khan. He defeared
for suppressing the revolt of Gujarat.
the Afghans near Sirhind in 1555.
• On 23rd July 1555, Humayun regained his crown. • Birbal died in a campaign against the Yusuf-Zahis.
• The Ibadat Khana was built in 1575, so that
• In 1556, he died after he fell from the steps of his
religious discussions could take place here.
library.
Purshottam Das (Hindu), Maharaji Rana (Parsi),
Akbar Harvijaya Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva
(Christian) partook in the discussions that were
• Akbar was born at the palace of Rana Virasaal, in held here.
Amarkot. • In 1579, che "Khutbe which was composed by Faizi
• At the age of 13, he was crowned as emperor, at in his own name, was read by Akbar.
Kalanaur. Bairam Khan served as his regent • The proclamation of 'Mazhar' took place in 1579,
• In 1556, in the second Battle of Panipat, Akbar and Akbar was given the title "Imam-I-Adil'. The
defeated Hemu. Hemu was the commander-in- discussions that took place in Ibadat Khana were
chief of Mohd. Adil Shah and had adopted the title brought to a stop in 1582.
of Vikramaditya'. • "Din-i-Ilahi' was enunciated in 1582.
• The period 1556-60 is known as Bairam Khan's • As put forward by Badauni, Akbar ished to establish
a new religion. Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi became a
regency.
part of the Din-i-Ilahi.
• Akbar besieged Chunar in 1561. Raja Ramchandra
• Bir Singh Bundela murdered Abul Fazl on the order
submitted the fort of Kalinga, In 1570, Bikaner and
of Salim.
Marwar surrendered to Akbar. • Akbar passed away due to dysentery, and was
Akbar's Fact file interred at Sikandara.
Important Dates Related to Akbar
• Abolition of slavery - 1562 Jahangir
• Abolition of Pilgrim tax - 1563 • He married Bhagwan Das's daughter Manbai and
• Abolition of Jaziya - 1564
had a son Khusrau.
• Transfer of capital from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri 1571

36
• He revolted against Akbar in 1599. He was crowned • Nicholas Downton (1608-15): He came during the
at Agra in 1605. reign of Jahangir. He brought a letter from James
• In 1611, he married Mehrunissa and gave her the • Nicholas Withington: He came during Jahangir's
name Nurmahal. Her father Gyas Beg was given the reign. His travelogue is called Tracktat". He praised
title of "Itmaduddaulah'. the Sati system.
• Amar Singh of Mewar submitted in 1615. Malik • Thomas Coryet (1612-17); He came during
Ambar was successful in capturing Ahmadnagar Jahangir's relgn.
from the Mughals. In 1620, Jahangir annexed • Sir Thomas Roe (1615-19): He came during
Kangra Jahangir's reign.
• Machlipatnam was visited by the British under his • Edward Terry (1616-19); He was a chaplain. He
rule. His court was visited by Captain Hawkins and came during Jahangir's reign.
Throne Roe. • Pietra della vale (1622-33): An Italian, he came
• A chain of justice was hung outside his palace. during Jahangir's reign.
• The fifth Sikh guru Arjun was sentenced to death Ø Shahjahan's reign is described by French
for his blessing to the rebel Prince Khusriu. traveller Manucci. Peter Mundy described the
• Qandhar was occupied from Shah Abbas of Persia famine that occurred during Shahjahan's time
in 1622. and the timely measures taken by the emperor.
• Jahangir was a lover of art, literature, and Ø In 1638, Ali Mardan Khan, the Persian governor
particularly painting. of Qandahar surrendered the fort to the
Mughal government of Kabul. However it was
Shahjahan again lost to the Persians in 1649. This is called
the "permanent loss' of Qandahar.
• Shahjahan (1627–58) succeeded Jahangir. His
mother was Jagat Gosain. His childhood name was
Aurangzeb
Khurram.
• In 1607. Jahangir had granted him a mansab of • In order to ascend to the throne, he had to indulge
8000 zat. in a war for succession.
• In 1612, he married Arzamand Banu Begum who • Shuja installed himself as the King at Rajmahal,
became famous as Mumtaz Mahal. after rumours abour the death of Shahjahan broke
• He was crowned in Agra in 1628. surface. Suleiman Shikoh, who was the son of Dara
• He had to face instant revolt by Khan Jahan Lodhi Shikoh, defeated him.
and the Bundellas under Jujhar Singh. • In 1658, Jaswant Singh and Qasim Khan were
• In 1632, he defeated Portuguese near Hugli. defeated by Aurangzeb and Murad at Dharamapur.
• In 1636, he annexed Ahmadnagar. Dara was also defeated by them at Samugarh.
• In 1652, he sent his son Aurangzeb as Viceroy of • Aurangzeb crowned himself as the ruler at Delhi,
Deccan. after Murad was arrested and killed.
• In 1659, Shuja was defeated at Khajwah by
European Travellers during Mughal Period Aurangzeb. Dara was defeated at Deorai.
• Shahjahan died in 1666. Aurangzeb took the title of
• Father Anthony Monserrate (1578–82): He came Alamgir' in 1659.
with Father Acquaviva during Akbar's reign. He was • Shaista Khan chastised the Portuguese pirates and
the tutor of Princo Murad. annexed the island of Sonadeep and Chittagong.
• Ralph Fitch (1588–91): He came during Akbar's • Aurangzeb received embassies from Sharif of
reign. He wrote about the dress and customs of Mecca, King of Persia, Balkh, Bukhara, Bass and
Indians. Constantinople, etc.
• William Hawkins (1808-13); He came during • The system of Jharokha darhan was prohibited by
Jahangir's period. He knew Persian, He was given him in his eleventh year as emperor, and in his
the title of 'Khan' by Jahangir. twelfth year, he eradicated the system of weighing
• William Fitch (1608): He came during Jahangir's the emperor in gold. Nauroz was also prohibited by
reign. him.
• John Jourdian (1608-18): He came during Jahangir's • Aurangzeb was referred to as Darvesh or Zindapir,
reign. He has described Agra in detall. and he also abolished the practice of Sari.

37
• In 1679. he re-imposed Jaziya. rank was equal formed the first class. One whosc
• The first anti-imperial reaction took place in the sawar rank was less than the zat rank but more
form of Jat rebellion under Gokla in 1679. than half of the latter formed the second class. An
• In 1685, they rose again under Rajaram who officer whose sawar rank was less than half his zat
plundered Akbar's tomb at Sikandara. Later rank formed the third class of Mansabdar.
Churaman also rose in rebellion. • In another form of classification an official who had
• The second armed protest took place under the a zat rank of 500 and below was called a
Bundela Prince Chatrasaal. Mansabdar. An official whose zat rank was
• The Satnamis a sect of Hindu devotees of Narnaul between 500 and 2500 was called an Amir. One
and Mewat rose in revolt in 1672. whosc zat rank was more than 2500 was called
• The immediate cause of the revolt was the murder Amir-i-Umda.
of a Satnami by a Mughal foot soldier. • Ahadis were gentlemen troopers.
• Aurangzeb's Rajput Policy alienated the Rajputs. • Jahangir introduced the Duaspa Sih Aspa system.
On the death of Jaswant Singh. Aurangzeb gave the He reduced the average salary of a sawar, .
'tika of Jodhpur' to his nephew Inder Singh instead Shahjahan introduced the mouth scale.
of his posthumous son Ajit Singh. Durgadas • The 'Badshah' or the King was all powerful but he
Rathore, Rana Raj Singh, Rani Hadi and Ajit Singh took the advice of his advisers. The list of the
rebelled. Akbar, the son of Aurangzeb, joined advisors is given below:
Durgadas. In 1698, Ajit Singh was recognised as the o Wakil. He was the Prime Minister but his power
ruler of Marwar. was stripped off by Akbar and he was replaced
• Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was very aggressive. by Diwan who was the principal revenue
The three powers in the Deccan with which he had advisor.
to deal were the Marathas, and the two Shiah o Mir Bakshi: He was the head of the military and
states of Bijapur and Golkunda. intelligence department, He was the head of
• The Deccan policy followed by Aurangzeb is divided the military pay and accounts office.
into four phases. Phase I (1658–68) was led by Jai o Khan-i-Saman: Head of the imperial household,
Singh. The Mughals were unable to besiege Bijapur o Chief Qazi: Head of the judiciary department,
in 1665, and it resulted in the death of Jai Singh in o Sadr-us-Sadr: He looked after the religious
1667. But, Sholapur was secured through bribery . endowments and charities department,
Phase II (1668–84) was largely unsuccessful as it o Muhtasib: He looked into censorship of public
involved a tripartite alliance forged by Golkunda, morals,
Shivaji and Bijapur, wherein a relevant role was o Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana: Head of
played by Madanna and Akanna. artillery,
o Daroga-i-Dak-Chowki: Head of correspondence
• Phase III saw the capture of Bijapur (1686) and
department,
Golkunda (1687).
o Mir Maal: Lord privy scal.
• Phase IV saw the capture of Sambhaji at
o Mustaufi: Auditor general,
Sangameshwar, where he was executed.
o Nasir-i-Bayutat: Superintendent of imperial
• Aurangzeb died in 1707 in Aurangabad.
workshop,
o Mushriff: Revenue secretary,
Mughal Administration
o Mir Bahari: Lord of admirality,
o Mir Barr: Superintendent of forests,
• The Mansabdari system introduced in 1570 was o Waqa-i-Navis: News reporters,
meant to organise the nobility and the army. The o Mir Arz: In-charge of petitions,
Mansabdars were classified into 66 grades but in o Mir Manzil: Quartermaster general,
practice only 33 grades were constituted. o Mir Tozak: Master of ceremonies,
• A holder of a rank' was referred to as a Mansabdar, o Kotwal: He looked after public order and
Two ranks were in existence. The status and decency in towns,
position in the hierarchy of administration was o Faujdar: In the districts or Sarkar, he
sealed by "zat', while the number of troopers under maintained law and order,
the Mansabdars were sealed by the "Sawar'. o Muftis: Expounded Muslim law,
• There was three-fold classification of the o Mir Adl: Drew up and pronounced judgments,
Mansabdar. A Mansabdar whose zat and sawar
38
 o Amalguzar: Head of revenue administration in • Tabaqat-l-Nasiri - Minhaz-ul-Siraj
paraganas, • Khallo Bar - Amir Khusrau
o Bitakchi: Writer or record keeper, • Tughlaq Nama - Amir Khusrau
o Khazandhar: Treasurer, • Tarikh-i-Alai - Amir Khusrau
o Shikdar: In-charge of law and order in praganas, • Mitah-ul-Fuluh - Amir Khusrau
and • Tarikh-i-Firuz Shah - Barani
o Amil: Judicial officer in civil and revenue • Fatwah-|-Jahandari - Barani
disputes.
• Fautuhat-i-Firozshahi - Firoz Shah Tughlaq
• Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi - Shams-i-Siraj-Aff
Land Revenues
• Zararnama - Yazdi
• Siyasatnama - Nizaml Tusi
• At the time of Akbar there were three kinds of land
• Tarikh-I-Mubarakshahi - Ahmad Sirhindi
in the country (i) Khalisa or crown land, (ii) Jagir
• Futuh-us-Salatin - Isami
land or the one which was enjoyed by nobles who
• Rehala - Ibn Batuta
collected land revenue and sent a part to the
centre and, (iii) Sayurghal lands which were • Baburnama - Babur
granted on free tenure. • Tarikh-i-Rashidi - Mirza Haider
• The Mughal land revenue was a tax on crop and not • Humayunnara - Gulbadan Begum
a rent or a land tax. • Tarikh-i-Humayuni - Jauhar Aftabchi
• Nasp or Kankut was a system of land revenue • Tarikh-i-Shershai - Abbas Khan Serwani
collection wherein an estimate was made of the • Akbarnama - Abul Fazl
produce by the government officials. • Mantakhab-ul-Tawarikh - Babauni
• Muqtai system: It was a fixed revenue demand • Tabakat-i-Akbar - Nizamuddin Ahmad
leased in cash. • Badshahnarria - Abdul Hamid Lahori
• Todarmal and Muzzaffar Khan Turbti were • Alamgimarria - Mirza Mohd. Qasim
important revenue officials. • Muntakhab-ul-Lubab - Khafi Khan
• Dahsala system: It is also known as Zabri system. • Masir-i-Lamgui - Mustaid Khan
This system was adopted by the East India • Nuskha-i-Dilkhush - Bhimsena
Company in the Ryotwari system. In this system, • Fauthuhat-i-Alamgin- Ishwar Das
average produce per bigha of each category of land • Khulassat-i-Tawarikh - Sujan Rain Khatri
was ascertained based on past ten years' produce.
One third of the average produce per bigha of land Sher Shah
in respect of various crops in various categories of
land was fixed as state demand. The land revenue • Childhood name of Sher Shah was Farid.
was assessed in kind, but it was converted to cash • He entered the service of Bahar Khan Lohani, the
based on schedule of prices. Afghan Governor of south Bihar from whom he
• Polaj land was one in which two crops were raised received the title of Sher Khan.
every year. • He defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausu. He
• Parauti land had to be left fallow for one year. adopted the title of Sher Shah and proclaimed
• Chachar land was cultivated over every three or himself as the emperor of Hindustan.
four years. • He again defeated Humayun in the Battle of
• Nankar: One tenth of the produce was given as Kannauj or Bilgram.
allowance to the zamindar which was called • Sher Shah's last campaign was against Kalinjar. He
Nankar. succeeded but died from an explosion in 1545.
• Malikana: It was a compensation for imports. • He was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
• Humayun defeated Sikandar Suri and occupied
Important Books of Medieval India Delhi in 1555.
• Kitab-ul-Hind - Al Beruni
Peasants during Medieval Period
• Kanun-al-Masudi - Al Berunt
• Tarikha-/-Yamini - Utbi Mizarian - Low caste share croppers
• Taal-ul-Masir - Hasan Nizami and landless labourers.

39
Khudkashta - Resident cultivators • Fergusson has described the Jami Masjid as a
Pahikashta - Non-resident cultivators romance in stone
Balahars - Menials • The Panch Mahal reflects the plan of a Buddhist
Begar - Forced labour Vihara.
Dhenkall, Charas, Saqiya, used for irrigation • The Jodhabai's Palace, the Diwan-i-am and Diwan-
i-khas are Indian in their plan.
• Sher Shah established a highly centralised
• The Jami Masjid has been described by Fergusson
government.
as a romance in stone.
• He divided his empire into 47 Sarkars (districts)
• The Panch Mahal has the plan of a Buddhist Vihara.
which were divided into several Pergamus (sub-
districts) • He built the forts of Ajmer and Allahabad.
• Sheikh Salim Chisti's tomb and Mariyam's Palace
• He built many Samais.
were also constructed by him, and also
• He built the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to
commenced work on his own tomb at Sikandara.
Atrock.
Akbar's tomb was completed by Jahangir.
• He improved the land revenue system by adopting
• Jahangir's wife Nurjahan constructed her father,
Zabti-i-har-sal (assessment every year) method of
Itmaduddaullah's, tomb in Agra, during the reign of
revenue collection. Land was measured using gaz-
Jahangir. Pietradura, a new technique which had
i-xikandar'. A jarib of rope was the standard unit of
been borrowed from the Golmandal temple in
measurement.
Udaipur, was used for the first time here.
• Introduced two documents called parta (the
• The Moti Masjid was constructed by Jahangir in
amount each peasant had to pay) and qabiliyat
Lahore. His own tomb was built at Shahadra near
(deed of agreements).
Lahore.
• He was the first ruler to introduce silver Rupiya
• The Taj Mahal was constructed by Shah Jahan, in
(one rupiya was equal to 64 dams) and gold coin
the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, Ustad
ashrafi.
Ahmad Lahori, who had been conferred the title
• He built the Purana Qila and his own mausoleum at
"Nadir-ul-Asar', Mir Abdul Karim, Isa Khan and
Sasaram.
Makkaramat Khan were the chief architects of the
• Malik Mohammad Jaysi completed his 'Padmavat'
Taj Mahal.
during his reign.
• The Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-am, Mussamman Burz,
Moti Masjid, Shish Mahal, Khas Mahal, Machchi
Mughal Architecture
Mahal, etc. were built by Shah Jahan.
• Babur had no time to build monuments. However,
• The Red fort, which had its own Diwan-i-khas and
he built two mosques; one at Sambhal in
Diwan-i-am, had also been constructed by Shah
Rohilkhand; and the other at Kabulikhand in
Jahan.
Panipat. A third mosque in the old Lodhi Fort at
• Bebadal Khan built the Peacock Throne on his
Agra has also survived.
order, and it is on this throne that Amir Khusrau's
• Humayun built his palace Din Panah on the banks
couplet 'if there is a Paradise on Earth it is here was
of river Yamuna and Jamil Masjid.
inscribed.
• Humayun's tomb was built by his widow Haji
• Shalimarbagh in Srinagar was also constructed by
Begum. It is the prototype of Taj Mahal with it
him.
bulbous double domc.
• The Mori Masjid in the Red Fort in Delhi, was
• About Akbar, Abul Fazl has remarked that he
constructed by Aurangzeb. The Badshahi Mosque
planned splendid edifices and dressed che work of
in Lahore was another of his constructions.
his mind and heart in the garment of stone and day.
Aurangzeb's own tomb was built at Aurangabad.
• Fergussan has remarked that Fatehpur Sikri was a
reflex of the mind of a great man,
Mughal Painting
• The Jahangiri Mahal in Agra Fort was built by him
• Mir Sayyied Ali, the pupil of Bihzad of Herat who
in accordance with the Hindu designs, which were
has been styled the "Raphael of the Eası' and
in turn based on Man Mandir. Jodhabai's Palace,
Khwaja Abdur Samad were in the court of
the Diwan-i-am and Diwan-i-khas are known to be
Humayun. Both helped to prepare illustrations for
Indian in their plans.
the Dastan-i-Amir-Hamza.

40
• During Akbar's reign, Abdur Samad, Farukh Beg, • Sarangdev wrote the Sangeet Ratnakar.
Khusrau Quli, Jamshed, Basawan, Tal Kesu, • Rana Sanga wrote the Sangeet Raj, Sangeet
Mukund, Haribans and Daswanth were the Mimansa and a commentary on Sangeet Ratnakar.
prominent painters. • The Turks brought Rabab and Sarangi.
• Daswani painted the Razam Nama (Persian • Vidyaranya wrote Sangeetsara.
Mahabharata). • Amir Khusrau invented the Sitar. He Introduced
• Abdul Samad was given the title 'Shirngalam'. ragas such as Ghora, A.imen and Sanam. He is also
• In his court in Agra, Reza, Abul Hasan of Herat, said to have invented the Khayal. Tarana and Qawi.
Mohd. Nadir, Mohd. Murad, Ustad Mansur, Bishan • Sangeet Shiromani was dedicated to Ibrahim Shah
Das, Manhar, Goverdhan, etc. flourished. Sharqui.
• Under him miniature paintings developed. Painting • Hussainin and Jaunpuri ragas were devised by
also came to be influenced by the Europeans. Hussain Shah Sharqui.
• Ustad Mansur specialised in animals, while Bishan • Raja Mansingh Tomar invented the Dhrupad and
Das was a master of portraits. Man Kautuhal.
• Use of halo or divine lights began under Jahangir. • Baju Bawra moved to the court of Bahadur Shah of
• Shahjahan's court had painters such as Mohd. Gujarat.
Qadir, Mir Hasani, Anup Chitram, Kalyan Das, • Tansen of Gwalior created the Raga Dipaka and
Chintamani and Mohd. Nadir. Malhar.
• Dara Shikoh was a patron of arts as is proved by his • Akbar played the Nagaara and Aurangzeb was an
album now preserved in Indian office accomplished Veena player.
• Aurangzeb's age saw the decline of paintings. He • Mohammad Shah Rangeela was an accomplished
had many paintings defaced. singer and dancer
• Adil Shah Il wrote the Kitab-i-Nauras.
Music
MARATHAS
• Shivaji laid siege to the rich port town of Surat,
Shivaji in 1664, for the first time.
• Mirza Raja Jai Singh and Diler Khan were sent by
• Shivaji belonged to the Bhonsle dan of the Aurangzeb in order to crush the Maratha power.
Marathas. His father Shahji was a military • Shivaji sought peace after fighting for two
commander under the Nizam Shahi rulers of months. On June 24, 1665, the Treaty of
Ahmadnagar. After the decline of Ahmadnagar, Purandhar was signed.
he transferred his services to Bijapur. He had two • In October 1670, he sacked Surat second time.
wives. • He defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Salher
• In 1627. Jijabai conceived Shivaji in the fortress in 1672.
of Shivner, in the hills, in Poona. Dadaji Kondey • He was coronated at Raigarh on 16 June, 1674.
and Guru Ramdas, along with Jijabai, were the He assumed the title of Maharaja Chhatrapati.
people who influenced Shivaji. • He died in 1680 at the age of 53.
• Shahji gave him the Jagir of Poona. He first
captured Torna in 1646. . In the next two years Sambhaji
he conquered Chakan, Kondana and Purandhar.
• In 1656, he captured Javli from Chandra Rao • Shivaji was succeeded by Sambhaji (1680–89).
More. He also acquired the port towns of He was a man of loose morals and was widely
Kalyana and Bhivandi. He raided the Portuguese unpopular.
settlement at Daman and received tribute from • He made Kavi Kalash, a brahmana his personal
them. counsellor. He was nicknamed Kalusha- an
• In 1659. Afzal Khan was sent by Ali Adil Shah of instigator of strife.
Bijapur in order to teach Shivaji a lesson. Shivaji • Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb
used his tiger claws to kill Afzal Khan. took shelter with him. He was defeated by the
• Aurangzeb, in 1660, sent the Viceroy of Mughal Mughal commander Muqqarrab Khan at
Deccan, Shaista Khan, to attack the Maratha Sangameshwar in 1689 and met with his death
territories. The war raged on till 1663. along with his minister Kavi Kalash.
41
• The widow of Sambhaji, Yesubai, could not • The territories of the chemies on which chauth
protect the fort of Raigarh and along with her and sardesmukhi were levied were called
son Shahu, was made prisoner. 'Mughlai'. These taxes were also collected from
swarajya territory.
Rajaram
Asta-pradhan of Shivaji
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaramı. He shifted
his headquarters to Jinji. • Peshwa or Mukya Pradhan - Prime Minister
• Rajaram claimed that he was ruling on behalf of • Amatya or Maujadar - Finance Minister
Shahu and so never sat on the throne. • Mantri or Wagjanavis - Recorded proceedings of
• After the Mughals conquered Jinji, he fled to court
Vishalgarh and then to Satan. He died in 1700. • Sachiva or Suranavis - In-charge of royal
• On the death of Rajaram, his gallant wife Tarabai secretariat and King's correspondence
became the regent of her infant son Shivaji II. • Sumant of Dabir - Foreign Minister
• Azam Shah, che son of Aurangzeb released • Senapati or Sar-i-naubat - Commander in chief
Shahu in 1707. His advisor Zulfikar Khan hoped • Pandit Rao or Dandaphyaksha - Religious advisor
that it would lead to a civil war among the of king
Marathas. • Nyayadhish - Highest court of appeal; next after
• Tarabi sent Dhanaji Jadhav to oust Shahu from the king
Maharashtra but Dhanjai Jadhav was won over • Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi
by Shahu. • All ministers except Pandit Rao and Nyayadhish
• In November 1707. Tarabai was defeated in a participated in war
place called Khed. On 12 January 1708, Shahu • Shivaji was helped by ministers or Astapradhan.
was coronated at Satara. • The hierarchy of officers from top to bottom was
• In 1714. Rajabai, the second wife of Rajaram Peshwa, Majumdar, Sachiva and Mantri.
imprisoned Tarabai and her son Sambhaji II • The eight ministers were assisted by eight clerks.
settled in Kolhapur. They ruled from Kolhapur. They were Diwan (secretary), Majumdar
This was sanctioned by the Treaty of Warna in (accountant), Chitnis (treasurer), Fadnis (officer
1731. Kolhapur was called the souchern Maratha in-charge), Potnis (cashier) and Karkhanis
confederacy. (commissioner).
• At the lowest level, the revenue was collected by
Maratha Administration Patil, Kulkarni (village record keeper) and
• The Maratha administration was based on the Changula.
pattern adopted by Malik Amber in Ahmadnagar • Balutedar was the hereditary village servant or
and Mahmud Gawan in the Bahmani Kingdom. artisan.
• The Maratha kingdom was called Swarajya or • Deshmukh was the hereditary revenue collector
Mulk-e-ladim. at the district or sub-district level.
• Shivaji's kingdom was parcelled out into four • Deshpande was the hereditary accountant at the
provinces under the charge of a Subcdar or district and sub-district level. He Was also the
Mamlatdar. record keeper at the pargana level.
• The provinces were called Mahal or Suba. • In the revenue administration the measuring rod
• The Mahals were divided into parganas and was the Kathi.
parganas into tarfs. The tarfs were divided into • State's revenue claim was 40 percent.
manza. • Mirasdars were the hereditary owners of land.
• Chauth or one fourth of the land revenue, was • The 'Bargis' were cavalrymen who were supplied
collected by the Marathas. horses and arms from the state.
• One tenth of the standard land revenue, which • The Silahdars had to use their own equipment.
was called the sardeshmukhi, was levied on the • One unit of cavalry consisted of 25 troopers
population of towns and villages as a token of under a hawaldar.
their recognition of the Maratha ruler as their • Five hawaldars were under a jumladar, 10
sardeshmukh', which meant suzerain. jumladars made a hazari and 5 hazaris were

42
 under 1 panjahazari. The panjahazaris were • Balaji Vishwanath (1712-20): He helped Shahu in
under the sar-i-naubat. consolidating his position. He forged an
• The smallest unit of infantry consisted of 9 agreement with Saiyyad Hussain Ali in 1719
soldiers who were under a Naik, 5 naiks were called the Treaty of Delhi.
under a hawaldar. 3 hawaldars under a jumladar • He died in 1720. He was the seventh Peshwa.
and 10 jumladars under a hazari. • Baji Rao I popularised the ideal of Hindu pad
• Saranjami system was a system of revenue padshahi' or Hindu empire. He defeated Nizam
grants given to soldiers instead of their salaries near Palkhed.
• He defeated the Nizam and the Treaty of Durrah
Peshwas Sarai was formed.
• Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) defeated Alivardi Khan.

Bhakti Movement

• The Alvars (Vaishnavites) and Nayanars (Shalviles) • Eknath He was a family man who stated that in
popularised the Bhakti cult in southern India. order to lead a religious life, staying in institution
• Sankaracharya was born in Kaladi (Kerala) in AD. or monasteries, or secluded from the World was
788. He propounded the Advaita philosophy not required.
• Ramanuja was bom in Sriperambur. He opposed • Tukaram By birth, he was a Sudra. He gained the
the Mayavada of Shankara and advocated the gratitude of Shivaji. and went on to establish the
philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada. Varkarl sect. He further worked establish Hindu-
• He founded the Shrivaishnava sect. He wrote Muslim unity
Srbhashya, Vederashtha Sengraph. Vedantasara, • Ramdasa wrote the Dababodha. He was the guru
Vedant Dipa and Gita Bhashya. He advocated of Shivaji. He started the cult of Parmartha
salvation by Bhakti. His teacher was Yadav Prakash. • Chaitanya or Vishambhar Mishra belonged to the
He advocated Prapathlarga or the path of self Dasmani sect. He started the Achintayabheda
surrender to God. Bhedavada. He spent most of his time preaching in
• Srikanthacharya founded the Shivadvaita. Orissa.
• Madhavacharya founded the Dvaita philosophy. He • The biography of Chaitanya was written by
was born in Kalyanpura in south Kanera district. Krishnadas Kaviraj called the Chaitanya
• Nimbraka established his ashrama in Braja Charitamrita.
(Mathura). He propounded the Dvaitadvaita • He expressed himself by group singing called
philosophy and the philosophy of Bheda Bheda. He Sankirtan.
founded the Sanak Samprdaya. • Vidyabhushan wrote Govind Bhashya. His
• Vallabhacharya was born in Benaras in 1479. He followers organised themselves into a sect.called
lived in the court of Krishnadeva Rai. He Gaudiya Vaishnavismi. He died in Purl.
propounded the Shudhaadvaitavada. His • Ramananda was born in Allahabad but settled in
philosophy is known as Pushtimarga. He founded Varanasi. He founded the Ramanandi sect.
the Rudra Sampradaya. • His twelve followers were Anantananda, Kabir,
• Haridasa founded the Purandardasa movement. Pipa, Bhavananda, Sukha, Sursura, Padmavatsa,
• Basava founded the Lingayat Sect. The sect is also Narhari, Raidas, Dhanna, Sena and wife of Sursura.
known as Virasalva sect. • The teaching of Ramananda gave rise to two
• Jnaneshwar wrote the Bhavartha Dipik or schools of thought the orthodox and the liberal.
Jnaneshwari and Amritanubhya. He joined the The orthodox school is represented by Nabhadas
Varkari sect for which instituted the twice annual the author of Bhatamala; and Tulsidas the author
pilgrimage to Vithoba of Pandharpur. of Ramcharitmanas. The liberal school is
• Namdeva Gora (potter), Sena (barber), Choka represented by Kabir, Nanak and others.
(untouchable), Janbal (maid), etc made up his • Kabir was brought up in Varanasi. According to him
disciples. The Granth Sahib includes his abhangas. Ram Rahim, Allah, etc. were all the same. His

43
 disciples formed the Kabripnathi sect. His songs are • The next Sikh guru was Ramdas. Akbar had a great
found in Adi Grantha. veneration for this guru. Akbar granted Ramdas a
• He condemned the caste and religious distinction plot of land in Amritsar on which was later
and preached universalbrotherhood. constructed the famous Sikh temple or Golden
• Raidas, a disciple of Ramananda, started the Raidas Temple.
Panth. Rani Jhali or Chittor became his disciple. • Guru Arjundeva (1581-1606) compiled the
Some of his songs are included in Guru Granth Adigranth. He helped prince Khusrau which
Sahib. incensed Jahangir, who killed him in 1606.
• Dadudayal belonged to Ahmadabad but settled • Guru Hargovinda (1606-45) established a small
down In Narain in Rajasthan. His disciples were army. A Mughal army was defeated by him ar
Sunderdas, Rajab, Bakhan and Wadial. Sangama near Amritsar. His headquarters were
• Jagivanadasa founded the Satnami sect. shifted to Kiratpur by him, in 1634.
• Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitamansa, Vinaypatrika • Tegh Bahadur became the guru after Har Rai and
and Kavitaval. Harkishan. Guru Tegh Bahadur settled at
• Surdas wrote Sursagar. Anandpur. Later, in 1675, he was captured and
• Mirabai was Rajput princess of Merta. She was executed by Aurangzeb.
married to Bhojaraja, the eldest son of Rana Sanga, • The tradition of Baptism, also called Pahul, was
She was famous for her devotion to Krishna. commenced by Guru Govind Singh, Whoever
• SIKHS accepted it, was thenceforth referred to as Khalsa.
• Guru Nanak founded the Sikh sect. He started free A supplementary granth called the 'Daswen
community kitchens called "Guru ka Langar". Padshah ku Granth' was compiled by Guru Govind
• He was a mystic of Nirguna School and reflected Singh. He was stabbed to death in 1708, by an
the ideas of Kabir. Afghan at Nadur.
• He was followed by Guru Angad and Guru • Kapur Singh founded the Dal Khalsa.
Amardas.

Sufi Movements

• Sufi is taken from 'suf or wool. The protector, this order was Sharfuddin Ahmad Yahya maner
also called pir, stayed in a hospice which was of Patna.
called Khankah. It was belleved by them that • The Chisti order was founded in India by Muinuddin
religious music led to ecstasy. Chisti.
• They were divided into two categories, namely, • Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi led the Taghallub Movement.
Bashara, those who followed the Islamic law, and He supported imposition of Jaziya, cow slaughter
the Beshara, those who did not come under the and was against the Shias. Mirza Mazhar and Khwaja
Mir Dard revived the Naoshabandi order.
Shara.
• The Roshaniya Movement was started by Miya
• The Suhrawardi order was founded by Shaikh
Bayazid Ansari.
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. Its foundation on
• Shaikh Nuruddin began the Rishi Movement in
Indian soil was laid by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakaria Kashmir.
of Multan,
• Itutmish gave Sheikh Bahauddin the title of
Shaikh-ul-Islam. He wrote a book Awantul Mamt.
• Firdausl order was founded by Badruddin
Samarqandi in Delhi. The most prominent Sufi of

44
 Sufi Orders

Orders Saints
Chisti Silsilah Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti Shaikh
Haminuddin Nagauri'Sultan Tapikin
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki Khwaja Fariduddin
Masud "Ganj-i-Shakar
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya "Mehboob-i-ilahiAmir Khusrav
"Turkullah
Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud
Chirag-i-Delhi'
Suhrawardhi Silsilah Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya Shaikh-ul-Islam
Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi
Firdausi Silsilah Shaikh Badruddin Smarkandi
Shaikh Sharfuddin Yaha Maneri
Shattari Silsilah Shaikh Abdullah Shattari
Muhammad Ghaush
Qadirya ilsilah Shaikh Nayamatullah QadiriShaikh
Nizamatullah
Sayyid Muhammad GilaniAbdul Quadir
Gilani
Shaikh Pir Mahammad Main Pir"
Qalandari Silsilah Abu Ali Qalandar
Sayyid Murtaza
Naqsbandi Silsilah Khwaja Bahauddin NaqsbandiKhwaja Baqi
Billah
Sluaikh Ahmd Sirhnidi "Mujeddid Alif-i-Saani'Khwaja Mir
Dard 'Ilm-Ilahi Muhammad
Raushaniya sect Bayazid Ansari
Mahadewi Movement Mahammad Madhi of Jaunpur

LATER MUGHALS

• In 1707. after Aurangzeb died, his three surviving • He gave a high mansab to Guru Govind Singh.
sons Muazzam, who was the governor of Kabul; Banda Bahadur rebelled. During the course of his
Azam, who was the Governor of Gujarat; and campaign against Banda he died in 1712.
Kam Baksh, was the Governor of Bijapur, • The Mughal historian Khafi Khan gave him the
indulged in a war of succession in order to decide title of Shah-i-Bekhabar.
who would ascend the throne. • Jahandar Shah won the war of succession due to
• Muzzam defeated both Azam at Jajua and Kam the support of Zulfiqar Khan, the most powerful
Baksh near Hyderabad and ascended the Mughal Iranian noble of the time. Jahandar Shah was the
throne with the title of Bahadur Shah. He was first puppet ruler in Mughal India.
also knowiras Shah Alam I. • Zulfiqar Khan introduced the evil practice of
• He adopted a more tolerant attitude towards the revenue farming or Ijarah.
Hindus. The Jaziya was withdrawn and the • Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of Mirza
independence of Mewar and Marwar was Raja Sawai and Ajit Singh was awarded the title
acknowledged. of Maharaja, Shahu was granted the chauth and
• He released Shahu. sardeshmukhi of Deccan.

45
• Lal Kanwar, Jahandar Shah's favourite lady • Ahmad Shah was born to Muhammad shah
dominated the court. through a dancing girl Udham Bain. Ahmad Shah
• Jahandar Shah was defeated by Farrukhsiyar at Abdali invaded Delhi many times and Punjab and
Agra in 1713. Multan was ceded to them. The Maratha
• Kanwar Khan has described his reign in these snatched Malwa and Bundelkhand. His wazir
worlds the Owl dwelt in the Eagles nest and the Imad-ul-mulk. blinded him and placed Alamgir II
Crow took the place of the Nightingale'. on the throne
• Farrukhsiyar came to the throne with the help of • Azizuddin took the title of Alamgir II. He was
the Saiyed brothers. He appointed Saiyad murdered by his wazir Imad-ul-mulk,
Abdullah Khan as Wazir and Hussain Ali Khan as • Prince Ali Gauhar took the title of Shah Alam Il.
Mir Bakshi. Zulfiqar Khan was murdered. He crowned himself under Shujauddaullah's
• Banda Bahadur, the Sikh leader was executed in protection at Gathauli in Bihar. Another prince
Delhi. Shahjahan III was placed on the throne of Delhi.
• In 1717, the Emperor heedlessly granted to the • Shah Alam had to remain in exile for 12 years. He
East India Company many trading privileges was defeated by British in 1764 at the Battle of
including the exemption from custom duties for Buxar and lived for several years at Allahabad as
its trade through Bengal. the pensioner of East India Company. According
• Hussain Ali made a settlement with Balaji to the Treaty of Allahabad, the Emperor received
Vishwanath by which he made many concessions the territories of Allahabad and Kama and an
to the Maratha in return of their active armed annual tribute of 26 lakh from Bengal.
assistance in the struggle for supremacy going on • By a firman, the emperor confirmed the English
in Delhi. gains and granted them the Diwani of Bengal.
• In 1719. the Saiyad brothers with the help of Bihar and Orissa. In 1803, the English captured
Maratha troops killed Farrukhsiyar. Delhi.
• Saiyad brothers abolished Jaziya completely and • During Akbar II's reign Raja Ram Mohan Roy went
the pilgrim's tax was also abolished from a to England.
number of places. • Bahadur Shah II was the last Mughal emperor.
• After Farrukhsiyar, Saiyad brothers placed Rafi- After the Revolt of 1857, he was deported to
ud-Darjat on the throne but he died within four Rangoon where he died in 1862.
months.
Bengal
• He was replaced by Rafi-ud-Daulaha in 1719. He
was given the title Shahjahan II. • Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as Bengal's
• Mohammad Shah (1799-48) or Roshan Akhtar Diwan by Aurangzeb in 1700 and as subedar by
ascended the throne with the help of Saiyad Farrukhsiyar in 1717.
brothers. • The capital was shifted from Dhaka to
• Hussain Ali was murdered and Abdullah Khan Murshidabad by him, and he created a well
was made prisoner. planned administrative system. The peasants
• Nizam-ul-mulk set up an autonomous state in were presented with taqavi loans by him.
Deccan: Saidat Khan carved out a state for • Equal employment opportunities were offered
himself in Avadh; while Murshid Quli Khan to both Muslim and Hindus.
became virtually independent in Bengal, Bihar • Shujauddin was Murshid Quli Khan's son-in-law.
and Orissa. Bihar was attached to Bengal in 1733. Now the
• In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded India. Nawabs of Bengal ruled over Bihar, Bengal and
• Ahmad Shah Abdali raided the kingdom for the Orissa.
first time during his reign. • Sarfaraz Khan, son of Shuja, was murdered by
• His addiction to wine and women got him the Alivardi Khan, the deputy governor of Bihar.
nickname "Rangeela'.
46
• Aivardi Khan prevented the English from hands of the British forces, which were being
misusing their privileges and prohibited them commanded by Hector Munro. A treaty called
and French from fortifying their factories at the Treaty of Allahabad was signed with
Calcutta and Chandranagar, respectively. Shujauddaulah and Shah Alam II. Mir Jaffar was
• The British refused to comply with Sirajuddaullah positioned as the Nawab of Bengal once again. In
orders and so he ordered and scized the factory 1765. Mir Jafar died.
at Kasim Bazaar and Calcutta. On this occasion, • After Mir Jaffar's death, the English selected
the Black Hole cpisode happened on 20 June Najm-ud-Daulah, his minor son as his successor.
1756. The description of the Black Hole episode He remained a puppet in the hands of the British
was given by Holwell. during the period of dual government. In 1772,
• Arrival of a strong contingent from Madras under he was pensioned off with the Company taking
Colonel Clive Admiral Waston, their plunder of over direct charge
Hoogly, and recapture of Calcutta led to a treaty
Awadh
between Sirajuddaullah and the British.
• According to the Treaty of Alinagar, Siraj • Saddar Khan Burhan-ul-mulk was appointed the
recognised their privileges. Governor of Awadh by emperor Mohammad Shah.
• Soon the British organised a conspiracy with Later he founded an autonomous state there in
some leading men of the Nawab's court - Mir 1722.
Jaffar (Mir Bakshi), Manikchandra (officer in- • He was summoned to Delhi at the time of Nadir
charge of Calcutta), Rai Durlabh and Khadim Shah's invasion. In 1739, he committed suicide for
Khan (Important nobles), etc. some unknown reasons.
• The Battle of Plassey took place on 23 June 1757. • Safdarjung succeeded Saadat Khan and was
This battle saw the treachery of Mir Jaffar and Rai simultaneously appointed the Wazir of the empire
Durlabh, Mohanlal, where as Mir Madan in 1748. Thus, from here onwards, the Nawab of
Awadh came to be known as Nawab Wazir.
remained loyal. Sirajuddaulah was captured and
• He made an alliance with the Marathas and also
put to death by Miran, son of Mir Jaffar.
won the support of the Rajputs against the Rohillas
• Mir Jaffar rewarded the services of English by the
and Bangash Pathans.
grant of Zamindari of 24 Parganas, besides
• The highest post in his government was held by a
personal presents. Plassey proved a battle of far
Hindu, Nawab Rai.
reaching consequence for the fice of India.
• Shujauddaulah succeeded Safdarjung as the
• Mir Jaffer's reign saw the beginning of the drain Nawab of Awadh and wazir of the Mughal Empire.
of wealth' from India to Britain. • He was involved in the Battle of Buxar and had to
• He antagonised Raja Ram Narayan, the deputy pay heavy indemnities to the British besides
governor of Bihar and Rai Durlabh, the Diwan, Allahabad and Kara. He concluded the Treaty of
• He made fucile efforts to replace the British by Banaras with Warren Hastings whereby Allahabad
the Dutch but the Dutch were defeated by the and Kara were sold to the Nawabs.
British in the battle of 1759. • He defeated the Rohillas with the help of British
• Mir Jaffer was replaced by Mir Qasim. and annexed Rohilkhand to Awadh in 1774.
• Mir Qasim granted the zamindari of Burdwan, • Asaf-ud-daulah concluded the Treaty of Faizabad
Midnapore and Chittagong to the British. with the British, which further increased his
• He transferred his capital from Murshidbad to liabilities. He transferred his capital from Faizabad
Monghyr. to Lucknow.
• The Battle of Buxar was fought between the • During his reign, the begums of Awadh were
British Forces and the allies - Mir Qasim, mistreated by the Nawab Wazir with the help of
Shujauddaulah of Avadh and Shah Alam II, the Warren Hastings and huge amounts were
Mughal emperor, during his rule. This battle extracted from them.
resulted in the crushing defeat of the allies at the
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• In 1801, the first subsidiary treaty of North India • He gave money for the construction of the image
was signed between Lord Wellesley and Saadat Ali. of Goddess Sharda in the Sringeri temple after it
In accordance with this treaty, the Nawab lost was looted by the Marathas in 1791.
almost half of his territory, which was to be used
OTHERS
for the maintenance of the subsidiary troops.
• Wazid Ali Shah was the last ruler of Awadh. Lord Sikhs
Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 and pensioned
him off to Calcutta. He was well known for his • Under Ranjeet Singh of the Sukarchakia Misl, the
luxurious life and his penchant for songs and music. Sikh power reached its zenith.
• Ranjeer Singh established his own kingdom in
Hyderabad 1799. Lahore was his political capital. In 1809,
Ranjeer Singh had to sign the Treaty of Amritsar
• Nizam Ulmulk Asaf Jah's real name was Chin Qilich
during the period of Lord Minto.
Khan. He founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724.
• In 1809 when Shah Shuja (the grandson of Abdali)
The emperor Mohammad Shah granted him the
was ousted, Ranjeet Singh gave Shah Shuja the
title Asaf Jah.
support to recover the throne and took from him
• Puranchand, a Hindu, was his Diwan.
the famous Kohinoor diamond. He died in 1839.
• Nizam Ali concluded the subsidiary treaty with Lord
• After the death of Ranjeet Singh, the three rulers
Wellesley in 1798. This was the first subsidiary
Kharak Singh, Nonihal Singh and Sher Singh were
alliance in India.
murdered within six years. Dalip Singh succeeded
• Nasir-ud-daulah ruled from 1829 to 1859. In 1853.
to the throne at the minor age of 5 years. During
Dalhousie concerned the Nizam to cede 'Berar' in
his reign, the English invaded Punjab and the
lieu of the subsidiary amount.
Treaty of Lahore was signed in 1846.
Carnatic • Sir Henry Lawrence was posted as the British
Resident at Lahore. Lord Dalhousie subjugated
• Saadtullah Khan founded the autonomous state of Punjab in 1849. The ruler, Dalip Singh, was deposed
Carnatic with Arcot as its capital. He made his by Lord Dalhousie, and he and his mother Rani
nephew Dost Ali his successor without the approval Jindan were sent to England. Later, Sir John
of his superior, the Nizam. Dost Ali was murdered Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief
by the Marathas and was succeeded by Safdar Ali. Commissioner of Punjab.
• Chanda Sahib came to the throne in 1749 by
murdering Anwaruddin with the help of the French Rajputs
but he was also killed by the ally of the British who • Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Ambar was the most
placed Mohammad Ali on throne in 1753. renowned Rajput King. The city of Jaipur was
• Lord Welleseley pensioned off the last Nawab and established by him, and turned into a great hub of
annexed it in 1801. science and art
Mysore • Observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and
Mathura were built by him. A set of tables entitled
• Initially, Haider Ali had been a petty officer in the "Ziz Mohammad Shahi' were drawn up by him so
Mysore army. At Dindigul, he set up a modern that people could easily make astronomical
arsenal, making use of help provided by a French observations.
expert. Nanjaraj was overthrown by him in 1761, Sind
and his authority was established in Mysore.
• In 1769, he defeated the British in the first Anglo- • Under the Amirs to the Baluchi tribe, Sind was
divided into three units, viz. Hyderabad, Mirpur
Mysore war. He died in 1782 in course of the
and Khairpur, each under a separate branch of
second Anglo-Mysore War.
tribe.
• Tipu Sultan succeeded Hyder Ali. He lost the third • Sind was annexed by the British in 1843, during the
Anglo-Mysore war and died during the course of period of Lord Allenborough, and Sir Napier was
the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799. appointed as the first Governor of Sind.
48