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Emergency Psychiatry
                 PRIMERS ON PSYCHIATRY
             Stephen M. Strakowski, MD, Series Editor
Acknowledgments                                                               vii
Contributors                                                                   ix
          SE C T IO N I . T H E A P P R OAC H T O E M E R G E N C Y
                     P SYC H IAT R IC EVA LUAT IO N
        SE C T IO N I I . SP E C I F IC D I S O R D E R S , D IAG N O SE S ,
       A N D SYM P T OM S F R E Q U E N T LY E N C OU N T E R E D A S
                    P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S
      SE C T IO N I I I . SP E C I F IC P O P U L AT IO N S F R E Q U E N T LY
        E N C O U N T E R E D A S P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S
15.	Children and Adolescents                                                   295
    Heidi Burns, Bernard Biermann, and Nasuh Malas
16.	Geriatrics                                                                 321
     Daniel Cho, Junji Takeshita, Victor Huynh, Ishmael Gomes, and
     Earl Hishinuma
17.	Developmental Disabilities                                                 344
    Justin Kuehl
18.	Perinatal Patients and Related Illnesses, Symptoms, and
     Complications Related to Pregnancy                                         362
    Sarah Slocum
19.	Victims of Physical and Sexual Violence                                    376
    Kristie Ladegard and Jessica Tse
              SE C T IO N I V. D I SP O SI T IO N , A F T E R C A R E ,
             L E G A L I S SU E S , A N D F U T U R E D I R E C T IO N S
20.	Tool, Constraint, Liability, Context: Law and Emergency Psychiatry         401
    John S. Rozel and Layla Soliman
21.	Documenting Risk Assessments and High-Acuity Discharge
     Presentations                                                              420
    Shafi Lodhi
22.	Trauma-Informed Care, Psychological First Aid, and
     Recovery-Oriented Approaches in the Emergency Room                        440
    Benjamin Merotto and Scott A. Simpson
23.	Collaborations Within the Emergency Department                             451
    Julie Ruth Owen
24.	Collaborations Beyond the Emergency Department                             463
    Margaret E. Balfour and Matthew L. Goldman
25.	Quality Improvement in Psychiatric Emergency Settings:
     Making Care Safer and Better                                               479
    Margaret E. Balfour and Richard Rhoads
Index                                                                           493
                          Acknowledgments
My significant gratitude toward the finest group of physicians I have ever worked with—
the Psychiatric Crisis Service of Milwaukee County. Love and appreciation to Amy,
Noah, and Owen for their patience, support, and enthusiasm for not only our mission
but also my passion.
Junji Takeshita, MD
Professor and Associate Chair, Clinical
  Services
Geriatric Psychiatry Program Director
Department of Psychiatry
John A. Burns School of Medicine
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
            SECTION I
THE A PPROAC H TO E M E RG E NC Y
  P SYC HIAT R IC EVA LUAT ION
                                           1
                   An Initial Approach to the
                    Emergency Evaluation
        Pitfalls, Pearls, and Notice of Countertransference
                                    Janet Richmond
Introduction
This chapter introduces the new clinician to techniques used to engage and evaluate
the psychiatric patient in the emergency setting. The goal of the examination is to
quickly establish rapport, contain affect, and gather enough information to arrive at a
differential diagnosis that informs stabilization and disposition. An effective interview
should be trauma-informed, collaborative, noncoercive, and have a treatment compo-
nent.1–5 The evaluation is rapid and focused rather than a complete workup as is done
in an outpatient intake. In the emergency psychiatric evaluation, attention is paid to
the chief complaint, the history of the present illness, the mental status examination,
a safety assessment, and the patient’s request.3,6–8 A biopsychosocial understanding
of the patient’s situation is also necessary to inform treatment and disposition. The
objective is to elicit as much information as needed, focusing more on how to elicit
the information rather than asking a list of actuarial questions that frequently give
only limited information. The exam is a process of generating hypotheses that change
over the course of the interview as new information is elicited. For example, is the pa-
tient psychotic because he stopped his antipsychotic medication? The patient appears
psychotic; is he truly psychotic or just terribly anxious? Or is he in the middle of a
thyroid storm? Although this type of interviewing may appear to be inefficient, it is a
systematic way of interviewing that elicits information organically yet is not lengthy
to conduct. Finally, this model of interviewing draws on psychoanalytic1,9 and object
relations theory.
   In the first few minutes of the interview, the clinician generates hypotheses, which
the clinician rules in or out. Then, based on further information, the clinician generates
more hypotheses. More serious conditions, such as acute medical illness, psychosis, or
homicidal or suicidal ideation/intent, are first on the list of hypotheses to rule in or out.
   As noted above, performing an emergency psychiatric examination can be done
without a preset list of questions and can elicit more information than a reductionistic
checklist. Interviewing techniques include the use of open-ended questions interwoven
with more focused, closed-ended questions; sitting in silence; and paying attention to
one’s own countertransference feelings, both physiologic and emotional.3,12
   Most patients are not seeking a diagnosis in the emergency department (ED), but cli-
nicians strive to make one and then believe that the assessment is complete. Lazare and
Engel argue that there are more elements to take into consideration. In my clinical work,
this type of formulation has been useful even in the evaluation of potentially suicidal
patients. It has often obviated the need for hospitalization, even when multiple risk fac-
tors superficially indicated that the patient was imminently lethal and in need of invol-
untary hospitalization. The following case illustrates a biopsychosocial evaluation.
Case Example
A 40-year-old male with no known prior psychiatric or medical history is brought to the
ED after becoming agitated at work. He is dressed in a suit and tie and is neat and clean
except for excessive sweating and a haphazardly undone tie. He reports feeling agitated
and believes he is having “flashbacks” to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 (9/
11), when he was in one of the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City but
escaped unharmed. At the time, he had nightmares and exaggerated startle responses,
but these remitted within the first month after the event. His primary care doctor had
                       An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation                       5
diagnosed insomnia and had prescribed a sleeping aid (zolpidem), which the patient
used for only 2 weeks. He does not drink, use drugs, or take supplements. He is an at-
torney, and he is embarrassed that he was so upset in front of his partners, one of whom
took him to the ED. His wife corroborates the history. From a biomedical framework,
the change in mental status could stem from an array of new-onset medical illnesses,
including an acute cardiac event, thyroid storm, hyperglycemia, or impairment of the
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. A full medical workup is completely negative. The
medical diagnosis is panic attack. The next step is to generate hypotheses, the first being
whether the diagnosis of panic attack is accurate or due to another psychiatric illness or
an occult medical illness that the medical examination did not pick up.
    Is there a family history of psychiatric illness such as bipolar disorder that could now
be emerging in the patient? Is this a delayed post-traumatic stress disorder reaction and,
if so, what precipitated it? Is the patient’s report that he does not use substances accurate?
    As he speaks, the clinician listens for clues as to what may have precipitated these
“flashbacks” (which are actually intrusive memories of the event and not actual flashback
phenomena). From the social component, are the patient’s marriage and job secure? Is he
worried about finances? From the psychological frame, what might be triggering these
intense memories? What happened to disrupt his usual coping skills?
    During the interview, the clinician listens for data to confirm or refute hypotheses,
asking focused questions when necessary and generating further hypotheses, exploring
each thoroughly. The patient’s marriage, job, and finances are secure. There are no recent
life cycle events and no family psychiatric or substance abuse history. Once again, the
patient denies personal use of substances and is convincing. He reviews his reactions to
9/11 and, when asked, goes into some detail about the specific traumatic event that he is
reexperiencing today. The clinician then asks the patient to “walk me through your day”
(up to and including the onset of today’s symptoms) to determine a precipitant. Almost
immediately the patient pauses, is shocked, and “remembers” that while on his way to
work that morning, he was delayed by a serious traffic accident in which a car caught
on fire and a father and two young children were rescued unharmed. At the time of 9/
11, the patient’s two children were school aged, and as he watched the towers blazing,
he remembered seeing two children approximately the same age as his children being
hurried by their mother to safety. Throughout the day (of 9/11), he had had intrusive
thoughts that his children could have been in the rubble, but his wife had kept them back
home due to a stomach flu. While retelling his story, the patient had an upsurge in adren-
ergic symptoms that resolved as he was able to understand his reaction. Despite gener-
ating all these hypotheses and doing so in a nonstructured format, the entire evaluation
took 20 minutes. An additional 10 minutes was spent helping the patent reintegrate his
experiences and reequilibrate.
The Interview
The best interview does not feel like an interview to the patient, nor does it look like
one to the casual observer. Instead, it looks like a conversation dedicated to learning
about the patient, their illness, their ability to cope, and what the patient would like to see
happen in the ED. This method of interviewing builds rapport.
  It is current practice to use a trauma-informed approach for all patients. The emer-
gency room environment may be threatening or trigger memories or reactions from past
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