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Emergency Psychiatry
PRIMERS ON PSYCHIATRY
Stephen M. Strakowski, MD, Series Editor

Published and Forthcoming Titles


Anxiety Disorders
Edited by Kerry Ressler, Daniel Pine, and Barbara Rothbaum
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Edited by Christopher McDougle
Schizoprehnia and Psychotic Spectrum Disorders
Edited by S. Charles Schulz, Michael F. Green, and Katharine J. Nelson
Mental Health Practice and the Law
Edited by Ronald Schouten
Borderline Personality Disorder
Edited by Barbara Stanley and Antonia New
Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
Edited by Frederick J. Stoddard, Jr., David M. Benedek,
Mohammed R. Milad, and Robert J. Ursano
Depression
Edited by Madhukar H. Trivedi
Bipolar Disorder
Edited by Stephen M. Strakowski, Melissa P. Del Bello,
Caleb M. Adler, and David E. Fleck
Public and Community Psychiatry
Edited by James G. Baker and Sarah E. Baker
Substance Use Disorders
Edited by F. Gerard Moeller and Mishka Terplan
Personality Disorders
Edited by Robert E. Feinstein
Emergency Psychiatry
Edited by
T O N Y T H R A SH E R , D O, M BA , D FA PA
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data
Names: Thrasher, Tony, editor.
Title: Emergency psychiatry / [edited by] Tony Thrasher.
Other titles: Emergency psychiatry (Thrasher) | Primer on.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2023] |
Series: Primer on series |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023006089 (print) | LCCN 2023006090 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197624005 (paperback) | ISBN 9780197624029 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197624036 (online)
Subjects: MESH: Emergency Services, Psychiatric—methods |
Mental Disorders—diagnosis | Mental Disorders—therapy
Classification: LCC RC480.6 (print) | LCC RC480.6 (ebook) |
NLM WM 401 | DDC 616.89/025—dc23/eng/20230323
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023006089
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023006090
DOI: 10.1093/​med/​9780197624005.001.0001
This material is not intended to be, and should not be considered, a substitute for medical or
other professional advice. Treatment for the conditions described in this material is highly
dependent on the individual circumstances. And, while this material is designed to offer
accurate information with respect to the subject matter covered and to be current as of the
time it was written, research and knowledge about medical and health issues is constantly
evolving and dose schedules for medications are being revised continually, with new side
effects recognized and accounted for regularly. Readers must therefore always check the
product information and clinical procedures with the most up-​to-​date published product
information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers and the most recent codes of
conduct and safety regulation. The publisher and the authors make no representations or
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Without limiting the foregoing, the publisher and the authors make no representations or
warranties as to the accuracy or efficacy of the drug dosages mentioned in the material. The
authors and the publisher do not accept, and expressly disclaim, any responsibility for any
liability, loss, or risk that may be claimed or incurred as a consequence of the use and/​or
application of any of the contents of this material.
Printed by Marquis Book Printing, Canada
Contents

Acknowledgments  vii
Contributors  ix

SE C T IO N I . T H E A P P R OAC H T O E M E R G E N C Y
P SYC H IAT R IC EVA LUAT IO N

1. An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation: Pitfalls, Pearls,


and Notice of Countertransference  3
Janet Richmond
2. Evaluating and Managing the Agitated Patient  21
Victor Hong, Jennifer Baumhauer, and Stephen Leung
3. Medical Assessment of the Psychiatric Patient  41
Seth Thomas
4. Assessing for Suicidality and Overall Risk of Violence  64
Megan B. Schabbing
5. Telepsychiatry and Beyond: Future Directions in Emergency Psychiatry  83
Katherine Maloy
6. Cultural Competence in Emergency Psychiatry  97
Arpit Aggarwal and Oluwole Popoola

SE C T IO N I I . SP E C I F IC D I S O R D E R S , D IAG N O SE S ,
A N D SYM P T OM S F R E Q U E N T LY E N C OU N T E R E D A S
P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S

7. Altered Mental Status and Neurologic Syndromes  109


Thomas W. Heinrich, Ian Steele, and Sara Brady
8. Intoxication, Withdrawal, and Symptoms of Substance Use Disorders  136
Annaliese Koller Shumate
9. Psychosis, Psychotic Disorders, and the Schizophrenia Spectrum  166
Chelsea Wolf and Helena Winston
10. Emergency Psychiatry Evaluation and Treatment of Mood Disorders  190
Katherine Maloy
11. Anxiety, Post-​Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Other Trauma-​Related
Disorders  208
Anna K. McDowell and Scott A. Simpson
vi Contents

12. Personality Disorders  220


Joseph B. Bond and Nicole R. Smith
13. Deception in the Emergency Setting: Malingering and Factitious
Disorder  250
Laura W. Barnett and Eileen P. Ryan
14. Eating Disorders  267
Claire Drom

SE C T IO N I I I . SP E C I F IC P O P U L AT IO N S F R E Q U E N T LY
E N C O U N T E R E D A S P SYC H IAT R IC E M E R G E N C I E S
15. Children and Adolescents  295
Heidi Burns, Bernard Biermann, and Nasuh Malas
16. Geriatrics  321
Daniel Cho, Junji Takeshita, Victor Huynh, Ishmael Gomes, and
Earl Hishinuma
17. Developmental Disabilities  344
Justin Kuehl
18. Perinatal Patients and Related Illnesses, Symptoms, and
Complications Related to Pregnancy  362
Sarah Slocum
19. Victims of Physical and Sexual Violence  376
Kristie Ladegard and Jessica Tse

SE C T IO N I V. D I SP O SI T IO N , A F T E R C A R E ,
L E G A L I S SU E S , A N D F U T U R E D I R E C T IO N S

20. Tool, Constraint, Liability, Context: Law and Emergency Psychiatry  401
John S. Rozel and Layla Soliman
21. Documenting Risk Assessments and High-​Acuity Discharge
Presentations  420
Shafi Lodhi
22. Trauma-​Informed Care, Psychological First Aid, and
Recovery-​Oriented Approaches in the Emergency Room  440
Benjamin Merotto and Scott A. Simpson
23. Collaborations Within the Emergency Department  451
Julie Ruth Owen
24. Collaborations Beyond the Emergency Department  463
Margaret E. Balfour and Matthew L. Goldman
25. Quality Improvement in Psychiatric Emergency Settings:
Making Care Safer and Better  479
Margaret E. Balfour and Richard Rhoads

Index  493
Acknowledgments

My significant gratitude toward the finest group of physicians I have ever worked with—​
the Psychiatric Crisis Service of Milwaukee County. Love and appreciation to Amy,
Noah, and Owen for their patience, support, and enthusiasm for not only our mission
but also my passion.

Tony Thrasher, DO, MBA, DFAPA


Contributors

Arpit Aggarwal, MD Heidi Burns, MD


Associate Professor of Clinical Psychiatry Assistant Professor
Department of Psychiatry Department of Child and Adolescent
University of Missouri, Columbia Psychiatry
Columbia, MO, USA University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Margaret E. Balfour, MD, PhD
Associate Professor of Psychiatry Daniel Cho, MD
Chief of Quality and Clinical Innovation Assistant Professor
Connections Health Solutions Department of Psychiatry
University of Arizona University of Hawaii,
Tucson, AZ, USA Honolulu, HI, USA

Laura W. Barnett, DO Claire Drom, MD


Clinical Assistant Professor Staff Psychiatrist
Department of Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry and
The Ohio State University Wexner Behavioral Health
Medical Center CentraCare Clinic
Columbus, OH, USA St. Cloud, MN, USA

Jennifer Baumhauer, MD Matthew L. Goldman, MD, MS


Clinical Assistant Professor Medical Director, Comprehensive
Department of Psychiatry Crisis Services
University of Michigan San Francisco Department of Public
Ann Arbor, MI, USA Health
San Francisco, CA, USA
Bernard Biermann, MD, PhD
University of Michigan Medical School Ishmael Gomes
Ann Arbor, MI, USA Department of Psychiatry
University of Hawaii
Joseph B. Bond, MD, MPH
Honolulu, HI, USA
Child, Adolescent, & Adult Psychiatrist
Department of Psychiatry Thomas W. Heinrich, MD
Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Professor of Psychiatry and Family
Medical School Medicine
Boston, MA, USA Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Medicine
Sara Brady, MD
Medical College of Wisconsin
Physician
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Medicine Earl Hishinuma, PhD
Medical College of Wisconsin Adjunct Professor
Milwaukee, WI, USA Department of Psychiatry
University of Hawaii at Manoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
x Contributors

Victor Hong, MD Benjamin Merotto, MD


Associate Clinical Professor Behavioral Health Services
Department of Psychiatry Denver Health and Hospital Authority
University of Michigan Denver, CO, USA
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Julie Ruth Owen, MD, MBA
Victor Huynh, DO Assistant Professor; Medical Director,
Resident Physician Emergency Department Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry Service
University of Hawaii Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral
Honolulu, HI, USA Medicine; Department of Emergency
Medicine
Justin Kuehl, PsyD
Medical College of Wisconsin
Chief Psychologist
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Milwaukee County Behavioral Health
Division Oluwole Popoola, MD, MPH
Milwaukee, WI, USA Assistant Clinical Professor
Department of Psychiatry
Kristie Ladegard, MD
University of Missouri
Assistant Professor and Clinical Director of
Columbia, MO, USA
School Based Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry Richard Rhoads, MD
University of Colorado Medical Director
Denver, CO, USA Connections Health Solutions
Phoenix, AZ, USA
Stephen Leung, MD
Assistant Clinical Professor Janet Richmond
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral McLean Hospital
Sciences Boston, MA, USA
University of California, San Francisco
John S. Rozel, MD, MSL
San Francisco, CA, USA
Professor of Psychiatry/Adjunct Professor
Shafi Lodhi, MD of Law
Psychiatric Emergency Services University of Pittsburgh
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Neuroscience
Eileen P. Ryan, DO
University of Cincinnati
Professor
Cincinnati, OH, USA
Department of Psychiatry and
Nasuh Malas, MD, MPH Behavioral Health
Associate Professor The Ohio State University Wexner
Department of Psychiatry and Department Medical Center
of Pediatrics Columbus, OH, USA
University of Michigan
Megan B. Schabbing, MD
Ann Arbor, MI, USA
System Medical Director
Katherine Maloy, MD Department of Psychiatric Emergency
Assistant Clinical Professor Services
Department of Psychiatry OhioHealth
New York University Columbus, OH, USA
New York, NY, USA
Annaliese Koller Shumate, BA, DO
Anna K. McDowell, MD Staff Psychiatrist
Mental Health Service Milwaukee County Crisis Services
Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Milwaukee County
Medical Center Milwaukee, WI, USA
Aurora, CO, USA
Contributors xi

Scott A. Simpson, MD, MPH Seth Thomas, MD


Medical Director, Psychiatric Emergency Director of Quality and Performance
Services Emergency Medicine
Behavioral Health Services Vituity
Denver Health Emeryville, CA, USA
Denver, CO, USA
Jessica Tse, DO
Sarah Slocum, MD Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Fellow
Psychiatry Service Line Physician Lead Department of Psychiatry
Exeter Health Resources University of Utah
Exeter, NH, USA Salt Lake City, UT, USA

Nicole R. Smith, MD Helena Winston, MD


Psychiatrist Assistant Professor
Prism Psychiatry Practice Department of Psychiatry
Washington, DC, USA Denver Health and the University of Colorado
Anschutz Medical Campus
Layla Soliman
Denver and Aurora, CO, USA
Dept of Psychiatry
Atrium Health/Wake Forest University Chelsea Wolf, MD, MA
School of Medicine Assistant Professor and Medical Director,
Charlotte, NC, USA Adult Inpatient Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry
Ian Steele, MD
Denver Health Medical Center
Assistant Professor
Denver, CO, USA
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Medicine
Medical College of Wisconsin
Milwaukee, WI, USA

Junji Takeshita, MD
Professor and Associate Chair, Clinical
Services
Geriatric Psychiatry Program Director
Department of Psychiatry
John A. Burns School of Medicine
University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Honolulu, HI, USA
SECTION I

THE A PPROAC H TO E M E RG E NC Y
P SYC HIAT R IC EVA LUAT ION
1
An Initial Approach to the
Emergency Evaluation
Pitfalls, Pearls, and Notice of Countertransference
Janet Richmond

Introduction

This chapter introduces the new clinician to techniques used to engage and evaluate
the psychiatric patient in the emergency setting. The goal of the examination is to
quickly establish rapport, contain affect, and gather enough information to arrive at a
differential diagnosis that informs stabilization and disposition. An effective interview
should be trauma-​informed, collaborative, noncoercive, and have a treatment compo-
nent.1–​5 The evaluation is rapid and focused rather than a complete workup as is done
in an outpatient intake. In the emergency psychiatric evaluation, attention is paid to
the chief complaint, the history of the present illness, the mental status examination,
a safety assessment, and the patient’s request.3,6–​8 A biopsychosocial understanding
of the patient’s situation is also necessary to inform treatment and disposition. The
objective is to elicit as much information as needed, focusing more on how to elicit
the information rather than asking a list of actuarial questions that frequently give
only limited information. The exam is a process of generating hypotheses that change
over the course of the interview as new information is elicited. For example, is the pa-
tient psychotic because he stopped his antipsychotic medication? The patient appears
psychotic; is he truly psychotic or just terribly anxious? Or is he in the middle of a
thyroid storm? Although this type of interviewing may appear to be inefficient, it is a
systematic way of interviewing that elicits information organically yet is not lengthy
to conduct. Finally, this model of interviewing draws on psychoanalytic1,9 and object
relations theory.

The Biopsychosocial Model

Lazare10 developed a framework for clinical decision-​making by using a biopsychosocial


framework (Table 1.1). In this model, “the clinician must learn to elicit specific data to
confirm or refute clinical hypotheses rather than gather a complete history.” He used
George Engel’s biopsychosocial model11 to develop his interviewing method. Lazare
states that using this model ensures that the clinician does not come to a premature clo-
sure in the examination and “provide(s) a stimulus for the exploration of relevant but
neglected clinical questions” during the interview.
4 Emergency Psychiatry

Table 1.1 Lazare’s Hypotheses in the Biopsychosocial Model

Psychological Social Impact Biological Consider First


Conditions That Are

Precipitating event Change in the social Probable


environment
Personality style Cultural factors Axis I disorders Serious
Unresolved grief Religious and Medical/​neurological Treatable
spiritual factors illness
Developmental crisis Social isolation Alcohol or drug use Resource availability
Coping skills/​ego Social interactions Patient’s behavior
defenses
Interpersonal Inability to get what
conflicts/​attachment one wants or needs
problems from others
History of traumatic External events
events (suicide, violence,
traumatic events)

Adapted from Lazare.10

In the first few minutes of the interview, the clinician generates hypotheses, which
the clinician rules in or out. Then, based on further information, the clinician generates
more hypotheses. More serious conditions, such as acute medical illness, psychosis, or
homicidal or suicidal ideation/​intent, are first on the list of hypotheses to rule in or out.
As noted above, performing an emergency psychiatric examination can be done
without a preset list of questions and can elicit more information than a reductionistic
checklist. Interviewing techniques include the use of open-​ended questions interwoven
with more focused, closed-​ended questions; sitting in silence; and paying attention to
one’s own countertransference feelings, both physiologic and emotional.3,12
Most patients are not seeking a diagnosis in the emergency department (ED), but cli-
nicians strive to make one and then believe that the assessment is complete. Lazare and
Engel argue that there are more elements to take into consideration. In my clinical work,
this type of formulation has been useful even in the evaluation of potentially suicidal
patients. It has often obviated the need for hospitalization, even when multiple risk fac-
tors superficially indicated that the patient was imminently lethal and in need of invol-
untary hospitalization. The following case illustrates a biopsychosocial evaluation.

Case Example

A 40-​year-​old male with no known prior psychiatric or medical history is brought to the
ED after becoming agitated at work. He is dressed in a suit and tie and is neat and clean
except for excessive sweating and a haphazardly undone tie. He reports feeling agitated
and believes he is having “flashbacks” to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 (9/​
11), when he was in one of the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City but
escaped unharmed. At the time, he had nightmares and exaggerated startle responses,
but these remitted within the first month after the event. His primary care doctor had
An Initial Approach to the Emergency Evaluation 5

diagnosed insomnia and had prescribed a sleeping aid (zolpidem), which the patient
used for only 2 weeks. He does not drink, use drugs, or take supplements. He is an at-
torney, and he is embarrassed that he was so upset in front of his partners, one of whom
took him to the ED. His wife corroborates the history. From a biomedical framework,
the change in mental status could stem from an array of new-​onset medical illnesses,
including an acute cardiac event, thyroid storm, hyperglycemia, or impairment of the
hypothalamic–​pituitary–​adrenal axis. A full medical workup is completely negative. The
medical diagnosis is panic attack. The next step is to generate hypotheses, the first being
whether the diagnosis of panic attack is accurate or due to another psychiatric illness or
an occult medical illness that the medical examination did not pick up.
Is there a family history of psychiatric illness such as bipolar disorder that could now
be emerging in the patient? Is this a delayed post-​traumatic stress disorder reaction and,
if so, what precipitated it? Is the patient’s report that he does not use substances accurate?
As he speaks, the clinician listens for clues as to what may have precipitated these
“flashbacks” (which are actually intrusive memories of the event and not actual flashback
phenomena). From the social component, are the patient’s marriage and job secure? Is he
worried about finances? From the psychological frame, what might be triggering these
intense memories? What happened to disrupt his usual coping skills?
During the interview, the clinician listens for data to confirm or refute hypotheses,
asking focused questions when necessary and generating further hypotheses, exploring
each thoroughly. The patient’s marriage, job, and finances are secure. There are no recent
life cycle events and no family psychiatric or substance abuse history. Once again, the
patient denies personal use of substances and is convincing. He reviews his reactions to
9/​11 and, when asked, goes into some detail about the specific traumatic event that he is
reexperiencing today. The clinician then asks the patient to “walk me through your day”
(up to and including the onset of today’s symptoms) to determine a precipitant. Almost
immediately the patient pauses, is shocked, and “remembers” that while on his way to
work that morning, he was delayed by a serious traffic accident in which a car caught
on fire and a father and two young children were rescued unharmed. At the time of 9/​
11, the patient’s two children were school aged, and as he watched the towers blazing,
he remembered seeing two children approximately the same age as his children being
hurried by their mother to safety. Throughout the day (of 9/​11), he had had intrusive
thoughts that his children could have been in the rubble, but his wife had kept them back
home due to a stomach flu. While retelling his story, the patient had an upsurge in adren-
ergic symptoms that resolved as he was able to understand his reaction. Despite gener-
ating all these hypotheses and doing so in a nonstructured format, the entire evaluation
took 20 minutes. An additional 10 minutes was spent helping the patent reintegrate his
experiences and reequilibrate.

The Interview

The best interview does not feel like an interview to the patient, nor does it look like
one to the casual observer. Instead, it looks like a conversation dedicated to learning
about the patient, their illness, their ability to cope, and what the patient would like to see
happen in the ED. This method of interviewing builds rapport.
It is current practice to use a trauma-​informed approach for all patients. The emer-
gency room environment may be threatening or trigger memories or reactions from past
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