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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN PHYSICS

Dieter Lüst
Ward Vleeshouwers

Black Hole
Information and
Thermodynamics
SpringerBriefs in Physics

Series editors
B. Ananthanarayan, Centre for High Energy Physics, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, India
Egor Babaev, Amherst, MA, USA
Malcolm Bremer, Bristol, UK
Xavier Calmet, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sussex,
Brighton, UK
Francesca Di Lodovico, London, UK
Pablo D. Esquinazi, Institute for Experimental Physics II, University of Leipzig,
Leipzig, Germany
Maarten Hoogerland, Auckland, New Zealand
Eric Le Ru, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of
Wellington, Kelburn, Wellington, New Zealand
Hans-Joachim Lewerenz, Pasadena, CA, USA
James Overduin, Towson, MD, USA
Vesselin Petkov, Montreal, QC, Canada
Charles H.-T. Wang, Department of Physics, The University of Aberdeen,
Aberdeen, UK
Andrew Whitaker, Belfast, UK
Stefan Theisen, Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphys, Potsdam, Germany
Dario Narducci, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
SpringerBriefs in Physics are a series of slim high-quality publications encom-
passing the entire spectrum of physics. Manuscripts for SpringerBriefs in Physics
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Dieter Lüst Ward Vleeshouwers
•

Black Hole Information

and Thermodynamics

123
Dieter Lüst Ward Vleeshouwers
Arnold-Sommerfeld-Center Institute for Theoretical Physics
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Utrecht University
Munich, Bavaria, Germany Utrecht, The Netherlands

ISSN 2191-5423 ISSN 2191-5431 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-10918-9 ISBN 978-3-030-10919-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10919-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018966389

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Abstract

This SpringerBrief is based on a master’s course on the black hole thermodynamics

and the black hole information problem taught by Dieter Lüst during the summer
term 2017 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich; it was written by
Ward Vleeshouwers. It provides a short introduction to general relativity, which
describes gravity in terms of the curvature of space–time, and examines the
properties of black holes. These are central objects in general relativity which arise
when sufficient energy is compressed into a finite volume, so that even light cannot
escape its gravitational pull. We will see that black holes exhibit a profound con-
nection with thermodynamic systems. Indeed, by quantizing a field theory on
curved backgrounds, one can show that black holes emit thermal (Hawking)
radiation, so that the connection with thermodynamics is more than a formal
similarity. Hawking radiation gives rise to an apparent conflict between general
relativity and quantum mechanics known as the black hole information problem. If
a black hole formed from a pure quantum state evaporates to form thermal radia-
tion, which is in a mixed state, then the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics is
violated. We will examine the black hole information problem, which has plagued
the physics community for over four decades, and consider prominent examples of
proposed solutions, in particular, the string theoretical construction of the
Tangherlini black hole, and the infinite number of asymptotic symmetries given by
BMS transformations.

v
Contents

1 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Riemannian Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 De Rham Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Introduction to General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 11
4.1 Equivalence Principles . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 11
4.2 Curved Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . 12
4.2.1 Parallel Transport, Geodesics, and Curvature . . . . . . . . 13
5 Einstein’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1 Christoffel Connection . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1.1 Parallel Transport . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1.2 Curvature: The ‘Field Strength’ of C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Einstein Equations . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.1 Remarks . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.1 Schwarzschild Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 Event Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7 Kruskal–Szekeres Coordinates and Geodesics
of the Schwarzschild Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.1 Geodesics and Effective Potential of the Schwarzschild
Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.2 Gravitational Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vii
viii Contents

8 Conformal Compactifications and Penrose Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . 29

8.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.1.1 Two-Dimensional Flat Space R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.1.2 (1 þ 3)-Dimensional Minkowski Space R1;3 . . . . . . . . . 30
8.1.3 Two-Dimensional Rindler Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9 Penrose Diagrams of Charged and Rotating Black Holes . . . . . . . . 33
9.1 Penrose Diagram for Schwarzschild Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.2 Charged and Rotating Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2.1 Reissner–Nordström Black Holes (Charged) . . . . . . . . . 35
10 Rotating Black Holes and Black Hole Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.1 Rotating (Kerr) Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
10.2 Kerr–Newman Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
10.3 Laws of Black Hole Thermodynamics (Mechanics) . . . . . . . . . . 39
10.3.1 Zero’th Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11 Black Hole Mechanics and Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.1 First Law of Black Hole Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.2 Smarr’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
12 Black Hole Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.1 Previously: Zero’th and First Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.2 Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.2.1 Consequences for Coalescing Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . 46
12.3 Third Law of Black Hole Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
13 Black Holes and Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
14 Hawking and Unruh Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
14.1 Free Scalar Field in Minkowski Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
15 Quantum Field Theory in Curved Space-Time Backgrounds . . . . . 55
15.1 Last Time: Minkowski Space with Free Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . 55
15.2 Unruh Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
16 Unruh and Hawking Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
16.1 Hawking Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
17 Information Loss Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 63
17.1 Possible Solutions to the Information Problem . . ........... 64
17.1.1 Black Hole Complementarity (Susskind,
Thorlacius, ’t Hooft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 65
17.1.2 Firewall Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 65
Contents ix

18 Solitons in String Theory . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . 67

18.1 Review of Electrodynamics in Minkowski Space . . . . . . . . . . . 67
18.2 Dirac Quantization . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . 68
18.3 Supergravity and p-branes . ................. . . . . . . . . . . 69
19 Brane Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 71
19.1 Explicit Examples of Solitonic Solutions to Type II
SUGRA: p-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
19.2 D-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
19.3 T-duality for the Closed String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
19.4 T-duality for the Open String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
19.5 Massless Spectrum of Open String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
19.6 Generalization to Several D-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
19.7 Dynamics of D-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
20 Dimensional Reduction and Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
20.1 Black Holes in String Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
20.1.1 Dimensional Reduction of Effective Action . . . . . . . . . 78
20.1.2 Dimensional Reduction of p-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
20.1.3 Interlude: Tangherlini Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
20.2 Dimensional Reduction of the D1-brane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
20.3 Solution: p-brane Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
21 Black Holes in String Theory from p/D-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
21.1 p-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
21.2 D-branes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
21.3 10-Dimensional Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
21.3.1 D1-brane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
21.3.2 D1, D5 - System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
21.3.3 D1, D5, pp-wave Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
22 Black Hole Microstate Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
23 Asymptotic Symmetries in General Relativity
and Black Hole Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
23.1.1 Classical Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.1.2 Quantum Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.2 The Interpretation of the Goldstone Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
23.3 Asymptotic BMS Transformations - Supertranslations
and Superrotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 94
23.3.1 Expansion of the Metric Around Spatial Infinity ..... 94
x Contents

24 Asymptotic Symmetries of 4D Space-Time Geometries . . . . . . . . . . 95

24.1 Supertranslations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
24.1.1 Example: Minkowski Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
24.1.2 Quantum-Mechanical Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
25 BMS Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
25.1 Asymptotic Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
25.2 Superrotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
25.3 BMS-Like Transformations and Charges on the Horizon
of Schwarzschild Space-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
26 The Gravitational Memory Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
27 Current Research on BMS-Like Transformations and Charges
of Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
27.1 Soft Gravitons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
27.2 A-Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
27.3 Quantum Picture of a Schwarzschild Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . 110
27.3.1 Toy Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
28 Quantum Hair and Quantum Black Hole Vacua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
28.1 Collective Excitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Chapter 1
Special Relativity

In non-relativistic settings, the symmetry group of space-time is the Galilean group,

which consists of rotations and translations. These transformations leave spatial dis-
tances (as well as temporal intervals) invariant. For example, in two spatial dimen-
sions with coordinates (x, y), the squared distance s 2 = (x)2 + (y)2 is invariant
under rotations, which are of the form
      
x x cos α sin α x
→ = .
y y − sin α cos α y

The invariance of spatial (Euclidean) distance is then given by s 2 = (x  )2 +

(y  )2 = s 2 .
In the context of special relativity, our notion of invariant distance changes.
Namely, if we consider a (3 + 1)-dimensional space i.e. three spatial and one tem-
poral dimension parametrized by (t, x, y, z), we define the Minkowski distance

s 2 = −(ct)2 + (x)2 + (y)2 + (z)2 , (1.1)

where c is the speed of light. The group that leaves this distance invariant is called
the Poincaré group, which extends the Galilean group to include boosts. Distances
in special relativity are no longer positive semi-definite, namely, we distinguish
1. s 2 > 0 (III) Space-like distance,
2. s 2 = 0 (I I ) Light-like distance,
3. s 2 < 0 (I ) Time-like distance.
If we consider a line segment parametrized in (t, x), the Roman numerals above
correspond to the regions in the space-time given in Fig. 1.1. For intervals with
s 2 < 0, the (squared) proper time τ is given by

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

D. Lüst and W. Vleeshouwers, Black Hole Information and Thermodynamics,
SpringerBriefs in Physics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10919-6_1
2 1 Special Relativity

Fig. 1.1 An example of a

space-time diagram. The
region indicated by Roman
numeral I (I I I ) consists of
points at time-like
(space-like) distance from
the origin at x μ = 0, that is,
points with s 2 < 0 (s 2 > 0).
Region I I is the light-cone
of the origin, which
separates time-like and
space-like regions. The green
line indicates an example of
a time-like trajectory with
x(t = 0) = 0

s2
τ 2 := − . (1.2)
c2

We will use four-vector notation x μ = (x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) and denote

spatial coordinates as x i = (x 1 , y 2 , z 3 ). The Minkowski metric is then given by
⎛ ⎞
−1 0 0 0
⎜ 0 1 0 0⎟
ημν = ⎜ ⎝ 0 0 1 0⎠ .
⎟ (1.3)
0 001

The Minkowski distance can then be conveniently be written as

s 2 = ημν x μ x ν . (1.4)

We also employ Einstein summation convention

xμ x μ := xμ x μ .
μ

I.e. we omit the summation symbol for repeated indices. The symmetry transforma-
tions that make up the Poincaré group are then written as

1. x μ → x̃ μ = x μ + a μ (translations)
2. x μ → x̃ μ = μν x ν (boosts and rotations)
1 Special Relativity 3

From the invariance of Minkowskian distance under boosts and rotations, we find

s 2 = (x)T η(x)
= (x̃)T η(x̃)
= (x)T T η(x) , η  := T η . (1.5)

The condition above is written in tensor notation as

ηρσ = μρ νσ ημν . (1.6)

We thus conclude that  ∈ O(3, 1), the (3 + 1)-dimensional orthogonal group.

The Poincaré group is the semi-direct product of the Lorentz group and (3 + 1)-
dimensional translations. Elements of the Lorentz group include
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0
⎜0 cos θ sin θ 0⎟
1. Rotations (in x, y-plane): μν = ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 − sin θ cos θ 0⎠ , 0 ≤ θ < 2π ,
0 0 0 1
⎛ ⎞
cosh φ − sinh φ 0 0
⎜− sinh φ cosh φ 0 0⎟
2. Boosts (in x-direction): μν = ⎜
⎝ 0
⎟ , −∞<φ<∞.
0 1 0⎠
0 0 01
One can easily check that these matrices satisfy η = T η, hence they leave the
Minkowskian distance invariant. We see that a boost transforms our coordinates as

t˜ = t cosh φ − x sinh φ
x̃ = x cosh φ − t sinh φ . (1.7)

For paths with x̃ = 0, the speed in our original reference frame is

x sinh φ
v= = = tanh φ ⇒ φ = tanh−1 v ,
t cosh φ

so that we find

t˜ = γ(t − vx)
1
x̃ = γ(x − vt) , γ := . (1.8)
1 − v 2 /c2

We see that s 2 = 0 for a trajectory with v = c. From now on, we set c = 1, so that
light-like trajectories are given by x = ±t. Note that the light-cone is mapped to itself
under Lorentz transformations. Time-like trajectories have v < c, while space-like
trajectories have v > c. Hypothetical particles which have v > c are called tachyons,
which are generally considered not to exist as propagating degrees of freedom.
Chapter 2
Riemannian Geometry

We consider (d+1)-dimensional smooth manifolds M, which are topological mani-

fold that look locally like Rn . M can be covered by open sets Ui , i ∈ I , where I is
i →R
are then defined as bijective maps φ : U−1
1,d
some indexing set. The charts with
the requirement that, for Ui Uj = 0, the transition function φi ◦ φj is C ∞ . The
collection of all Ui is then called an atlas.
At each point p ∈ M, we can define a tangent space Tp M, which consists of
all the tangent vectors at point p. The basis of Tp M is written as {ê(μ) }, so that
any vector can be written as V = V μ (xν ) ê(μ) . As we saw in the previous lecture,
∂xμ μ
Lorentz transformation acts as xμ = μν xν . Since ∂μ = ∂x μ
μ ∂μ and V ∂μ = V ∂μ ,
 μ
it follows that V μ = ∂x
∂xμ
V μ . We thus see that that ê(μ) = ∂μ , i.e. the tangent space
is spanned by partial derivatives defined at p. The dual space to the tangent space
is called the cotangent space, which is denoted by Tp∗ M. It is dual to Tp M in the
sense that its basis covectors θ̂(μ) satisfy θ̂(μ) ê(ν) = δνμ . Covectors are then expressed
as w = wμ (xν ) θ̂(μ) . The basis covectors are given by the differential forms, which
we write as see that θ̂(μ) = dxμ . The union of all Tp M over all p ∈ M is called the
tangent bundle over M and is denoted by T M. The collection of all Tp M over all
p ∈ M is then called the cotangent bundle over M, denoted by T ∗ M.

2.1 Tensors

Tensors are basically higher-dimensional generalizations of vectors and covectors.

(k)
A (k, l)-tensor is denoted as T(l) = T μ1 ,μ2 ...μμk 1 ,μ2 ...μl ∂μ1 ⊗ ∂μ2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ∂μk ⊗ dxν1 ⊗
dx ⊗ · · · ⊗ dx . These are elements of Tp M ⊗ · · · ⊗ Tp M ⊗ Tp∗ M ⊗ · · · ⊗ Tp∗ M.
ν2 νl
     
k l
Important examples include the Minkowski metric we encountered before, which is
a (0, 2)-tensor, as well as the Riemann and Ricci tensors, to be considered in due
time.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 5

D. Lüst and W. Vleeshouwers, Black Hole Information and Thermodynamics,
SpringerBriefs in Physics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10919-6_2
6 2 Riemannian Geometry

2.2 Differential Forms

Differential forms are completely antisymmetric (0, p)-tensors. They can thus be
written as
A(p) = A[μ1 μ2 ...μp ] dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ · · · ∧ dxp

The lowest-dimensional examples of p-forms are:

1. 0-form: scalar φ (xμ )

2. 1-form: vectors A(1) = Aμ dxμ e.g. the electromagnetic potential
3. 2-form: F(2) = Fμν dxμ ∧ dxν e.g. the electromagnetic field strength.

We can construct (p+1)-forms out of p-forms by applying the exterior derivative

F(p+1) = dA(p) , which acts as

1  
dp A(p) = ∂ν A[μ1 μ2 ...μp ] dxν ∧ dxμ1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxμp (2.1)
p!

This allows us to construct the electromagnetic field strength out of the vector poten-
tial as F(2) = dA(1) = ∂μ Aν dxμ ∧ dxν .

2.3 De Rham Cohomology

There are two important types of forms which we will consider further, namely,
closed and exact forms. Closed forms ω satisfy d ω = 0, whereas exact p-forms F(p)
satisfy F(p) = dA(p−1) , for some (p − 1)-form A(p−1) . It is easy to show that ddA = 0
for any A because of the antisymmetrization of the differential forms; one therefore
writes this as d 2 = 0. Hence dA is automatically closed for any differential form A.
An important question is whether there exist closed forms which are not exact. Forms
with this property form the basis of the cohomology group of our manifold, namely,

we consider a p-form F(p) topologically equivalent to some F(p) if they differ by an
exact form. We denote the space of closed p-forms by Zp (M ) = {F(p) |dF(p) = 0}
and the space of exact p-forms by Bp (M ) = {F(p) |F(p) = dA(p−1) }. The De Rham
cohomology is then defined as

Hp (M ) = Zp (M )/Bp (M ) = {F(p) | closed but not exact .} (2.2)

We consider an example of a physical application of de Rham cohomology. We

saw that the electromagnetic field strength Fμν can be written in form notation as
F(2) = Fμν dxμ ∧ dxν , of which the matrix form is
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