Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.
Module 5.6
Computers in Control
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.1
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Computers in Control
It may be appropriate to end Block 5 with a broad look at the involvement of computers in
control systems.
A dictionary definition of the term computer is a programmable electronic device that can
store, retrieve, and process data.
This definition includes the basic, single- and multi-loop controllers commonly found in process
industries where a condition is read by a sensor, compared to a set point in the controller via
some mathematical routines performed to determine the corrective action required, followed
by an output of an appropriate signal.
The development rate of the computer chip and its impact on all aspects of life is well known.
The rate of advancement in controls technology surely means that some of the following comments
will be redundant when read.
History
Stand-alone, single loop controllers date back to pneumatic controllers, which, through the
ingenious use of flaps and nozzles, could approximate the basic PID functions. These complex
and expensive controllers were often found in large petrochemical plants where accurate control
of the process, as well as intrinsic safety (the absence of sparks which could initiate a fire) was
essential.
Chart recorder
(data logger)
Single
loop controller
Water
out
Steam
Process 1
Water
in
Condensate
Fig. 5.6.1 Single loop controller with chart recorder
Often, these processes were individually connected to local circular chart recorders (Figure 5.6.1);
alternatively, a number of processes were connected to multi-pen recorders in control rooms
(Figure 5.6.2). While the multi-pen recorders enabled a number of parameters to be reviewed
together, the mechanisms in the instrument and the number of lines on one chart effectively
limited their use to approximately twelve inputs.
5.6.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Chart recorder
(data logger)
Single Single
loop loop
controller controller
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.2 Single loop controller with chart recorder
The first computers used in control systems replaced the main control room chart recorders.
They gathered information (or data) from a much greater number of points around the plant.
They were generally referred to as data loggers (Figure 5.6.3), and had no input to the plant
operation.
Printed report
Central computer
(data logger)
Single Single
loop loop
controller controller
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.3 A number of single loop controllers with a central data logging computer
These early computers were usually programmed to print out reports at specific time intervals on
continuous computer listing paper. By manually extracting the data from the computer print-outs,
the plant manager was able to review the operation of his plant as a whole, comparing the
performance of different parts of the plant, looking for deterioration in performance, which
would indicate the need for a shutdown, etc.
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.3
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
In the mid 1970s, a number of well-known instrument companies began marketing Digital
Control Systems (DCS). These systems utilised a central computer unit, which took inputs from
sensors, performed mathematical routines, and provided an output to various relevant controlling
devices. They also maintained a record of events for review (see Figure 5.6.4).
1. Information gathered from sensors
2. Correction signal output to control valves
3. Data logged and displayed/ printed
I/ O block I/ O block
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.4 A central computer gathering data and controlling the plant
Important notes:
o A personal computer (PC) cannot accept the raw instrument signals (4 - 20 mA, 0 - 10 V)
from a control device. An Input / Output (I / O) device was required to translate between the
two. Each of the I / O manufacturers had a unique means of achieving this, which meant that
the systems were not quite as compatible as had been intended.
o In the beginning, the I / O devices were in the plants main control room, and each individual
piece of equipment was connected to the main control room by its own individual signal
cable. This meant that on a large plant, the cable installation and management was an important
issue, in terms of its physical volume and corresponding cost.
o As technology progressed, the I / O device moved out to the plant, and the amount of cabling
to the control room was reduced, but was still significant.
These Digital Control Systems led to the development of:
o Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
o Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, and
o Building Management Systems (BMS)
. . . all of which are in prolific use today (see Figure 5.6.5).
5.6.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
1. Plant performance monitored
2. Controller settings changed
3. Data logged and displayed/ printed
Process controller Process controller
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.5 A distributed control system
A giant leap forward occurred in the late 1980s with the introduction of the PC and the Windows
screen environment and computer operating system. This provided a standard platform for the
earlier Digital Control Systems, as all the instrument companies needed to work in a common
format. The advantage of the Windows based systems was that information was exchangeable
in the same way that todays personal computer user can freely exchange data between Word,
Excel and PowerPoint. This data exchange language was termed Dynamic Data Exchange
(DDE), and subsequently developed into Object Linking and Embedding (OLE). This was further
modified for process control to become OLE for Process Control (OPC), which is still used at the
time of writing.
The use of PCs also meant that the options for viewing history were considerably easier. Instead
of being confined to print-outs and manual transfer data, the plant manager could use powerful
graphing programs, analyse trends, add colours, adjust scales and use symbols; different variables
could be plotted against each other, and the performance of different plants compared.
Modern automation systems utilise the computer as a Window on the process. The operator
uses the computer to monitor what is happening on the plant as a whole, and revise set-points
and control parameters, such as PID, of individual plant based controllers, thus leaving the
individual controllers to run the PID algorithms and control logic.
Consequently stand-alone controllers still have a place in modern automation systems as they
are in final control, but the controller usually takes the form of a PLC (Process Logic Controller) or
a multi-loop rack mounted device. These are quite different in appearance to single loop PID
controllers. Rather than an operator using a keypad to change the set point and other control
parameters at the controller, they are changed by an operator at a computer, which electronically
downloads the required parameter to the controller. In the event of a central computer failure,
the stand-alone controller would continue with its current parameters or go to a safe condition,
thus ensuring that the plant continued to operate safely.
The next major step forward was a system known as Fieldbus.
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.5
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Fieldbus uses a single digital cable system, which connects every item (see Figure 5.6.6).
1. Information gathered from sensors
2. Correction signal output to control valves
3. Data logged and displayed/ printed
1. Individual items have a unique address
2. Information requested from individual sensors
3. Instructions passed to individual valves
Fieldbus cable
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water
Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.6 A central computer with Fieldbus
accepts information and transmits correction signals via Fieldbus
Each item (sensor, controller and controlled device) is given a unique address, which is used to
either request information (perhaps from a sensor) or to take some action (perhaps close a
control valve).
However, these systems are complex and can be expensive. A Fieldbus network needs a master
controller to organise the communications and control logic on the Fieldbus. It also needs a way
of interfacing the Fieldbus to computer networks so information can be shared (see Figure 5.6.8).
A device that combines the role of Fieldbus controller and provides the bridge to a PC network
is called a bridge or master controller, (see Figure 5.6.7).
Fig. 5.6.7 A bridge
5.6.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Customers
Internet
Ethernet network Fieldbus cable Bridge
Water Water
out out
Steam Steam
Process 1 Process 2
Water Water
in in
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 5.6.8 Process control computer communicates with other computers over a network and the internet
On the process side the bridge can:
o Request and receive data from a number of sensors.
o Use this information in complex mathematical routines to determine and transmit the required
corrective action to control devices such as valves.
o Can request the equipment to initiate a diagnostic routine, and report.
On the computer network side it can provide:
o Historical data of equipment, such as date and result of recent diagnostic routines.
o Alarms when the process or equipment exceeds set parameters.
o Detailed historical and current data on plant performance.
o Safety interlocks.
Important notes:
o Bridges vary in complexity but may control 50+ processes; the equivalent of 50 single loop
PID controllers.
o If more processes are to be controlled, then more than one bridge may be used.
o The bridge(s) may be located at convenient points around a plant.
o The bridge does not usually display information, nor have any buttons to press. It is simply an
electronic gateway; all interaction with it is made via the PC.
Although Fieldbus is theoretically a common technology, there are differences between the
products and protocols used by different manufacturers.
Names commonly encountered in Fieldbus include:
o Hart o AS-I o CAN o Profibus o Interbus
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.7
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Important notes:
o Fieldbus protocols and products are not directly compatible with each other. There are ways
of integrating different Fieldbus but this can be expensive. This means that users will generally
adopt one system exclusively.
o Fieldbus systems can integrate older signal based instruments (4 - 20 mA, 0 - 10 V etc.).
However, signals have to be interfaced to the Fieldbus by I / O units and in doing so many (but
not all) of the benefits of Fieldbus are lost.
o This means that once a particular Fieldbus system has been adopted on a plant, it is unusual
for the user to even consider an alternative protocol.
As control technology advances, so does the PC. Computers are able to communicate with each
other over networks (LAN Local Area Network): Finance, Stores, Production, Marketing and
Sales departments within an organisation could easily share data, and have different levels of
authority to perform various tasks. Inevitably, the process control computer has been connected
to the network, allowing authorised personnel to view and amend the operation of the plant
from a PC in an office.
As manufacturing has become global, Wide Area Networks (WAN) have developed. Consequently,
an engineer located in London could, for example, interrogate a plant computer at his companys
plant in New York.
The impact of this control and communications technology is enormous. The knowledge, expertise
and equipment now exists where:
o A customers stores computer, responding to a minimum stock command or a production
plan, can place an order over the Internet.
o The order is received by the suppliers computer which:
- Interrogates the stores holding for the product and despatches it, or
- Modifies the production schedule to include the order, perhaps even amending the
process instructions to produce a particular product.
o The computer arranges despatch of the product and invoices the customer.
o No human intervention is required.
Benefits of Fieldbus technology
Installation:
o Reduction in system hardware - Fewer controllers and less wiring are required to control the
process
o Reduction in installation costs - Not only is there less equipment to install, the installation is
simpler and quicker, consequently this means a very significant reduction in material and
labour costs for installing wire, cable tray, conduit, marshalling cabinets, junction boxes, and
terminal blocks.
o Less space required - Because there is less equipment and less wiring in the control room
more space is available for other uses. It equally follows that there will be more space for
production equipment in the plant.
o Engineering drawings - The computer automatically produces the process logic drawings, so
they are always accurate and up-to-date.
5.6.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Operation:
o Safety - Fault state actions are embedded in the software with specific actions defined. In the
event of a failure of the main computer, control falls back to the local bridges which have
independent power supplies and are programmed to default to a safe mode relevant to the
process.
o Increased process information - The amount of information available to operators and
management is increased many times compared to a Distributed Control System (DCS),
see Figure 5.6.9. Individual devices (such as sensors and valves) are easily interrogated, viewed
and analysed. The complete process, or individual parts of the process, may be viewed and
analysed to identify restrictions, capacity for improvement and so on.
Management information
Control information
Distributed Control System Fieldbus control system
Sufficient control information but Slight increase in control information but a
insufficient management information vast increase in management information
compared with DCS
Fig. 5.6.9 Comparison of control and management information available using DCS and Fieldbus systems
o Pro-active maintenance - The main computer can carry out detailed diagnostic routines,
testing for sensor failure, output failure, memory failure, configuration error, communication
error, valve position and valve travel time used, stick-slip action, and so on. Consequently,
maintenance and calibration are based on the actual condition of the device rather than a
time period, so maintenance is reduced to only that which is necessary.
Several devices can perform maintenance and calibration routines at the same time. This
means fewer or shorter shutdowns, giving increased plant availability.
Time, materials and labour wasted on unnecessary maintenance is avoided, this means that
the cost of maintenance is minimised.
o System reliability - Proactive maintenance means that equipment is well maintained.
o Quality control - Centralised control and the ability to view the process in parts or in total,
improves quality control.
o Stock holding - Improved response and flexibility from the plant means that the product
inventory can often be reduced.
o Spares - Because of the compatibility and interchangeability of components, the user is not
tied to one component supplier, so prices are competitive. It also means that the spares inventory
can be minimised, again saving costs.
o Communications - The control system or any of its components may be accessed from virtually
anywhere, either over computer networks, or the Internet .
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.9
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Development of a Fieldbus system
Flexibility:
o The system can easily be updated to operate with revised process requirements.
o The system can easily be expanded to take on plant expansions or new processes.
o Compatibility with other systems means that equipment can be procured at competitive prices.
5.6.10 The Steam and Condensate Loop
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
Questions
1. Which of the following is NOT a Fieldbus protocol?
a| Hart ¨
b| Commbus ¨
c| CAN ¨
d| Interbus ¨
2. Which of the following applies to a modern Fieldbus system?
a| Eliminates the need for a separate controller for each process, and communicates
directly with sensors ¨
b| Can control up to fifteen processes simultaneously ¨
c| Incorporates devices at each process for local display of parameters, but not for
programming ¨
d| Has excellent flexibility and allows any computer operator connected to the system
to read and change process parameters and saves commissioning time ¨
3. Which of the following is required to integrate older signal based instruments such
as those with an output of 4 - 20 mA to a Fieldbus system?
a| Interbus protocol ¨
b| A bridge for each signal to convert it to a digital signal ¨
c| Profibus protocol which is based on an analogue system ¨
d| Signal Input / Output units ¨
4. Which of the following is UNTRUE of a Fieldbus system?
a| It will save time on plant commissioning ¨
b| It is a system designed for communication to and from a plant ¨
c| It will reduce the energy requirements of a plant ¨
d| Reliability of the process control valve is improved ¨
5. Which one of the following is an operational benefit of using Fieldbus?
a| It reduces the maintenance requirements of a plant ¨
b| It automatically guarantees consistency of product ¨
c| With regards to safety fault state, actions are embedded in the computer software ¨
d| Reliability of the process control valve is improved ¨
6. In automation terms, what is a bridge?
a| A device which permits communication between modern controllers and older PCs ¨
b| A device that interfaces between Fieldbus protocol and computers on a network ¨
c| A device that, in the event of a network failure, ensures the process controllers
continue operating with their programmed parameters ¨
d| A Fieldbus arrangement to allow each process controller to interface directly with a
central computer system ¨
Answers
1: b, 2: a, 3: d, 4: c, 5: c, 6: b
The Steam and Condensate Loop 5.6.11
Block 5 Basic Control Theory Computers in Control Module 5.6
5.6.12 The Steam and Condensate Loop
