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EPICTETUS
This page intentionally left blank
EPICTETUS
A S T O I C AND S O C R A T I C
GUIDE TO LIFE

A. A. Long

C L A R E N D O N PRESS • OXFORD
 This book Has been printed digitally and produced in a standard specification
In order to ensure its continuing availability

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford,
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide in
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With offices in
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Singapore Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press

in the UK and in certain other countries
Published in the United States
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York
©A. A, Long2002
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Database right Oxford University Press (maker)
Reprinted 2007
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the address above
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover
And you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

ISBN 978-0-19-924556-7
For Monique
This page intentionally left blank
 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Citations and Abbreviations xii
Anthology of Excerpts xiii

Introduction 1

1. Epictetus in his Time and Place 7

2. The Discourses 38
3. The Socratic Paradigm 67
4. Philosophy and Pedagogy 97
5. Reading Epictetus 128
6. Natures: Divine, Human, Animal 142
7. From Theology to Ethics 180
8. Autonomy and Integrity 207
9. Appropriate Actions and Feelings 231

Epilogue: The Afterlife of Epictetus 259

Glossary 275
Who's Who: Stoics and Others 277
References 281
Index of Passages 291
General Index 303
This page intentionally left blank
 PREFACE

The idea of writing this book began to crystallize while I was

teaching a graduate seminar on Epictetus at Berkeley in. the
spring of 1999, My students were far more responsive to his
Stoic discourses than I had dared to hope, and by the end of the
semester I myself was thinking about little else. By a happy
coincidence, I was about to begin a sabbatical year of research
leave, generously assisted by grants from my university. My
official project for this leave had not been a study of Epictetus,
but now I knew that this was what I wanted to write, and so I
set to work.
Although the idea of this book arose only recently, Epictetus
has been on or near my desk for more years than I care to recall.
I have been fascinated by him ever since I began to work on
Hellenistic philosophy, and I have incorporated him in much
that I have previously published. But I had never devoted a
whole course to Epictetus before, and I had never immersed
myself in him completely. Like many others, I tended to read
him piecemeal, concentrating on passages that bore on my gen-
eral interests in Stoicism rather than trying to engage with his
singular mind and arresting style for their own sake. Now,
instead, I read him through in entirety several times.
In doing so, I became especially interested in his educational
strategies and his devotion to Socrates, and I also found myself
increasingly impressed by the distinctive stamp of his Stoicism
and by his remarkable personality. Quite coincidentally, excerpts
of Epictetus were beginning to reach a large public through Tom
Wolfe's brilliant novel A Man in Full. Reactions to that book in
newspapers had shown that Epictetus' text, just by itself, was
capable of touching modern nerves. Yet, there was no up-to-date
and comprehensive introduction to Epictetus. All the more rea-
son, I thought, to write a book that would offer a sufficiently
x Preface
in-depth treatment in a manner that could attract new readers to
him as well as those to whom he needs no introduction.
That is what I have tried to do, with the strong encouragement
of Peter Momtchiloff of Oxford University Press and his anony-
mous advisers, for whose advice at the planning and later stages
1 am most grateful, 1 do not presume any prior knowledge of
Epictetus or Stoic philosophy, and I have liberally included my
own translations of numerous passages, using these as the basis
for all my detailed discussions. These excerpts are the most
important part of the book, because its main purpose is to pro-
vide sufficient background and analysis to enable Epictetus to
speak for himself. What he says, however, often stands in need of
clarification and interpretation. Research on Epictetus has a long
way to go. I hope I have contributed a number of fresh ideas, but
it would defeat the purpose of this book if I defended them in the
main text with a barrage of scholarship. At the end of chapters I
append bibliographical details and provide guidelines on various
details and points of controversy.
My warm thanks are due to numerous people. First, I am
delighted to mention all those who attended my seminar on
Epictetus: Chris Brooke, Tarnara Chin, Luca Castagnoli, James
Ker, Erin Orzel, Miguel Pizarro, Walter Roberts, Tricia Slatin,
Belle Waring, and two visiting scholars, Antonio Bravo Garcia
and Bill Stephens. 1 learnt a lot from them all, and I especially
thank Chris Brooke, whose seminar paper on Epictetus in early
modern Europe introduced me to some references I have grate-
fully incorporated in my Epilogue. I have been wonderfully
served by Christopher Gill, Brad Inwood, Vicky Kahn, and
David Sedley. They read the entire first draft of the book and gave
me extremely helpful comments. Peter Momtchiloff has been a
splendid editor, not only through his publishing expertise but also
by acting as the book's model reader. Our e-mail correspondence
over the past year has been a great stimulus and pleasure to me.
The final product is appreciably better as a result of all this
advice. I have benefited from the publications of scholars too
numerous to acknowledge completely, but among my contempor-
aries I especially thank Rob Dobbin, Christopher Gill, Rachana
Karntekar, Susanne Bobzien, Michael Frede, David Sedley,
 Preface xi
Pierre and Ilsctraut Hadot, Brad Inwood, Julia Annas, Jonathan
Barnes, and Robin Hard. James Ker, a graduate student at
Berkeley, has earned my gratitude not only by assembling data
and checking references but also by vetting my translations and
suggesting other improvements. I am also very grateful to Hilary
Walford for her care and courtesy as my copy-editor and. to
Charlotte Jenkins for her fine management of the book's produc-
tion.
I presented some of the material in Chapters 3 and 4 as Corbett
Lecturer at the University of Cambridge, and this is now pub-
lished in my article, 'Epictetus as Socratic Mentor', Proceedings
of the Cambridge Philological, Society, 45 (2000), 79—98. I also
gave related talks to the Loemker Conference on Stoicism, at
Emory University, Atlanta, the Stoicism seminar at the Centre
Leon Robin of the University of Paris Sorbonne, the Philosophy
Department of the State University of Milan, and the
Philosophy and Classics Departments of the University of Iowa.
I am very grateful for these invitations, especially to Steve
Strange, Jean-Baptiste Gourinat, Fernanda Decleva Caizzi, and
John Finnamore, and for the feedback received in discussions
following the lectures. When my typescript was in its final
stages, I delivered some of the material in a series of seminars at
the Ecole Normale Superieure of Paris under the kind auspices
of Claude Imbert. My French colleagues and students were a
wonderful audience, and their comments enabled me to make
several last-minute corrections and additions. Finally I thank
the University of California Berkeley for the Humanities
Research Fellowship I was given and also the Office of the
President of the University of California for the award of a
President's Research Fellowship in the Humanities.
I dedicate this book to my wife, Monique Elias. With her
artistry, beauty, and spontaneity, she has seen me through all the
dry days, and she has been a magnificent companion at every
stage of composition.
A.A.L.
Berkeley
June 2001
 CITATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

References to ancient authors are generally given in full. For

citations in the form Frede (1999), see the References. The fol-
lowing abbreviations are used;
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt
DL Diogenes Laertius
Ench, Epictetus' Encheiridion or Manual, compiled by
Arrian
EN Aristotle, Nicotnachean Ethics
In Ench. Simplicus' commentary on the Encheiridion
LS A. A. Long and D, N, Sedley, The Hellenistic
Philosophers, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1987), Volume i
includes translations of the principal sources, with
philosophical commentary, and volume ii gives the
corresponding Greek and Latin texts, with notes and
bibliography. A reference in the form LS 61A refers
to the chapter number of either volume and the corre-
sponding letter entry.
SVF Stoicorum Vetenmi Fragtnenta, ed. H. von Arnim,
3 vols, (Leipzig, 1903—5), This is the standard
collection of evidence for earlv Stoicism.
 ANTHOLOGY OF EXCERPTS

Epictetus' discourses translated in full or extensively:

6 God's oversight of everyone (1,14), pp. 25—6
15—17 Rationality and autonomy (1. 1), pp. 62—4
23 Every error involves involuntary conflict (2,26), pp. 74—5
24 Misunderstanding one's own motivations (1. 11), pp. 77—8
25,36 The starting-point of philosophy (2.1 1), pp. 79—80,102—3
30—1 Misapplications of Socratic argumentation (2.12), pp. 86—8
65—9 Rationality and studying oneself (1 .20), pp. 129—36
70—4 Lapsing from integrity (4.9), pp. 137—40
81 Kinship with God (1.3), p. 157
115 Resisting temptation (2.18), pp. 215—16
124 Goodness and correct volition (4,5), pp. 226—7

Selection of shorter excerpts:

4 Meeting a philosopher, p. 12
5 No excuses accepted, pp. 14—15
8,114 Progress, pp. 45, 210
9—11 Lecturing on philosophy, pp. 52—4
26—8, 33—5 Human propensities, pp. 81—5, 98—100
37—40 Scepticism, pp. 104—6
43,47,62, 103,137 Philosophy's demands, pp. 108—9, 111—12,
120, 194-5, 246
44-5,126 The human profession, pp. 110-11, 233
63 Epictetus on his teaching mission, pp. 123—4
76 The purpose of education, p. 153
79,80 Divine creativity, p. 155
92—3 Humans and other animals, pp. 173—4
95,103,117 The things that are one's own, pp. 187, 194, 221
97—9 Divine laws, pp. 187—9
xiv Anthology of Excerpts
100-2,140 Happiness, pp. 191, 249
104—8 Self-interest and community participation, pp. 197—201
109—10 Life as a game of skill, pp. 202-3
112—13 Freedom and volition, pp. 208—10
118—21 Natural integrity, pp. 224—5
126 Adapting to circumstances, p. 234
128,137 Mortality and contentment, pp. 235, 248
129—30 Fulfilling one's family obligations, pp. 236—7
131 Assessing one's own character, p. 238
135—6 Life as a dramatic performance, p. 242
138 Judgements and emotions, p. 246
141—2 Tolerance, pp. 251—2
 Introduction

Epictetus is a thinker we cannot forget, once we have encoun-

tered him, because he gets under our skin. He provokes and he
irritates, but he deals so trenchantly with life's everyday chal-
lenges that no one who knows his work can simply dismiss it as
theoretically invalid or practically useless. In times of stress, as
modern Epictetans have attested, his recommendations make
their presence felt.
Living as an emancipated slave and Stoic teacher in the Roman
Empire, Epictetus inhabited a world that is radically different
from the modern West. Yet, in spite of everything that distances
him from us—especially our material security, medical science,
and political rights, and his fervent deism—Epictetus scarcely
needs updating as an analyst of the psyche's strengths or weak-
nesses, and as a spokesman for human dignity, autonomy, and
integrity. His principal project is to assure his listeners that noth-
ing lies completely in their power except their judgements and
desires and goals. Even our bodily frame and its movements are not
entirely ours or up to us. The corollary is that nothing outside the
mind or volition can, of its own nature, constrain or frustrate us
unless we choose to let it do so. Happiness and a praiseworthy life
require us to monitor our mental selves at every waking moment,
making them and nothing external or material responsible for all
the goodness or badness we experience. In the final analysis, every
thing that affects us for good or ill depends on our own judgements
and on how we respond to the circumstances that befall us.
2 Introduction
Epictetus expounds these ideas in numerous ways, but he is
chiefly concerned with the training and contexts for their imple-
mentation, and with rebutting objections to them. The contexts
range over the whole gamut of human experience—tyrannical
threats to life and limb and. political freedom, loss of property, jeal-
ousy and resentment, anxiety, family squabbles and. affections,
sexual allure, dinner-table manners, bereavement, friendship,
dress, hygiene, and much more, This guide to life is as demanding
as it is comprehensive; for it is central to Epictetus' philosophy that
no occasion is so trivial, that his salient doctrines do not apply,
His cultural and historical significance have never been in
doubt. He was revered by many of his contemporaries and by
those, including the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, who knew him
later through his student Arrian's record of his teaching. Early
Christian writers mentioned him approvingly, and Simplicius,
the great Neoplatonist commentator on Aristotle, wrote a com-
mentary on the Manual. Translations of this abridgement of
Epictetus were so familiar during the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries that Epictetus became virtually a household
name for the European and early American intelligentsia.
William Congreve starts his play Love for Love with a penniless
young man reading Epictetus in his garret. Elizabeth Carter, a
prominent member of the Bluestocking Circle, was the first per-
son to translate the whole of Epictetus into English. Her near
contemporaries, Shaftesbury and Butler, are two of the British
moralists who invoked him during the eighteenth century, and
in America his later admirers included Thomas Jefferson, Walt
Whitman, and Henry James.
For much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, however,
Epictetus was not a central figure. He was largely treated as a
Stoic popularizer, lacking depth and creativity. Since about 1970
Epictetus has begun to regain his former status as a powerful
thinker on ethics and education, worthy of discussion alongside
Socrates and Plato, but he still tends to be read selectively, either
as the author of maxims preaching self-reliance or simply as a
spokesman for Stoic philosophy or for life under the Roman
Empire. Happily that situation is changing, as this book's
References section shows. Yet, there is no modern book that pre-
 Introduction 3
sents Epictetus in the round as author, stylist, educator, and
thinker. That is the gap I hope to fill by publishing this volume,
Epictetus can he explored from many different perspectives.
These include intellectual and social history, the interpretation
of Stoicism, ethics and psychology, both ancient and modern,
the theory and practice of education, rhetoric, and religion. As a
historian of ancient philosophy by profession, I have concen-
trated on the analysis of Epictetus' main ideas, but all the per-
spectives 1 listed are relevant to my goal—which is to provide
an accessible guide to reading Epictetus, both as a remarkable
historical figure and as a thinker whose recipe for a free and sat-
isfying life can engage our modern selves, in spite of our cultural
distance from him. I have given a lot of space to translated
excerpts, building my discussion of many details around these,
and 1 have also included the full text of several of the shorter dis-
courses. All these passages are numbered throughout the book,
and I have collected the main ones at the beginning in an
Anthology of Excerpts, where they are briefly described for ease
of reference.
I start from the assumption that Epictetus is deceptively simple
to read, or, rather, that he is a complex author with patterns of
thought and intention, including irony, that have been scarcely
appreciated. When he is read rapidly and selectively, Epictetus
can appear hectoring, sententious, or even repellent. I do not
maintain that these qualities simply disappear under analysis. His
work contains passages I prefer not to read, which have even on
occasion deterred me from writing this book. Yet I am also con-
vinced that a good many candidates for such passages are ironical
or at least rhetorically motivated by reference to cultural conven-
tions, his educational programme, and its youthful audience.
Epictetus has also been misunderstood because his appeals to
theology, which are ubiquitous, have been consciously or uncon-
sciously read in the light of Christianity. In my opinion,
Epictetus' deepest ideas are remote from the main Christian mes-
sage, notwithstanding notable parallels between some things he
says and the New Testament. His ethical outlook includes stark
appeals to self-interest, which ask persons to value their individ-
ual selves over everything else. Yet, Epictetus is a moralist, an
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