1.

Brief History of Computers (Based on Hardware Evolution)

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes it according to a set of instructions
(software), and produces output. Computers also store data for future use.

Generations of Computers

Generation Period Technology Used Features Examples

1st 1940–1956 Vacuum tubes Very large, slow, consumed ENIAC, UNIVAC
lots of electricity

2nd 1956–1963 Transistors Smaller, faster, more reliable, IBM 1401, CDC
less heat 1604
3rd 1964–1971 Integrated Circuits (ICs) Further size reduction, faster, IBM System/360
more efficient
4th 1971– Microprocessors (VLSI) Compact, powerful, personal Intel 8086, Pentium
Present computers emerged

5th Present & Artificial Intelligence, Voice recognition, robotics, IBM Watson,
Future Quantum Chips supercomputing Google Sycamore

2. Computer System Modules and Operations

Figure 1: Components of Computer

A computer system consists of several components that work together to perform operations. These
can be grouped into five main functional units:
A computer system can be broken into the following five functional modules:
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Storage Unit (Memory)
4. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
o Control Unit (CU)
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Registers
5. System Interconnection (Buses)

Functional Units of a Computer

1. Input Unit: Devices that input data into the system (e.g., keyboard, mouse)
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take
input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common
input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
• The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
• A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
• The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.

• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Joystick.

• Operations:
• Accepts raw data (numbers, text, images, voice).
• Converts it into a machine-readable binary form.
• Sends it to the CPU or memory for further processing.

Example: When you type "5 + 3" on a keyboard, the input unit translates the
characters into binary codes and forwards them to memory/CPU.

2. Output Unit:
Devices that display the result (e.g., monitor, printer)
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the
binary data coming from the CPU to human understandable form. The common output
devices are monitor, printer, plotter, etc.
• The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
• The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
• The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable form.

• Operations:
• Accepts processed binary data from the CPU.
• Converts it into a human-understandable form (text, images, sound).
• Displays or prints the result.

3. Storage/Memory Unit:
o Primary Memory: RAM, ROM
o Secondary Memory: HDD, SSD
 Divided into two main categories:
1. Primary Memory (Main Memory)
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
o Temporary, volatile memory.
o Stores instructions and data currently in use.
o Example: While editing a Word file, it stays in RAM.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory)
o Non-volatile memory.
o Stores permanent instructions (firmware, BIOS).
2. Secondary Memory
• Non-volatile storage for long-term use.
• Examples: Hard Disk, SSD, DVD, USB drives.
3. Cache Memory
• High-speed memory between CPU and RAM.
• Stores frequently accessed instructions and data.
• Improves processing speed.
Operations of Memory:
1. Stores data and instructions.
2. Provides them to CPU when needed.
3. Saves processed results before sending to output devices.

Example: While playing a game, RAM stores character positions, cache speeds up frequently
repeated actions, and the hard disk stores the entire game permanently.

4. Central Processing Unit

o Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor. The CPU (Central
Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer because it controls everything the
computer does. When you enter information using an input device, the CPU processes
it. First, it fetches instructions from memory, then decodes them to understand what
needs to be done. If needed, it retrieves data from memory or an input device. After
that, the CPU executes the task and either stores the result or displays it on an output
device. The CPU has three main parts: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which
handles calculations and logic; the Control Unit (CU), which directs operations; and
Memory Registers, which store temporary data.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Performs calculations and logic operations
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs mathematical operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
 • The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations and takes logical
decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logical decisions involve the comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or
smaller or equal.
• Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
• It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and logical
operations.
• Handles logical operations: AND, OR, NOT, comparisons (<, >, =).

Example: ALU adds two numbers (5 + 3 = 8).

2. Control Unit (CU)

• Directs the flow of data between CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
• The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU, and also
controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is also
responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched
instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices until the required
operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
• The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs the
operation of the processor.
• It instructs the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output devices on
how to respond to the processor's instructions.
• In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from the
control unit.
• It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.
• Interprets instructions from programs and tells other units what to do.
• Works like a traffic police officer.

Example: CU fetches an instruction from memory, decodes it, and signals ALU to perform the
operation.
3. Registers
• Small, high-speed storage locations inside the CPU.
• A register is a small, temporary memory inside the CPU. The processor uses it to store data
that it is currently working on. Registers come in different sizes, such as 16-bit, 32-bit, and
64-bit, and each has a specific role. Some store data, some store instructions, and others hold
memory addresses.
• For example, the Accumulator (ACC) is an important register in the CPU. It holds one of
the values used in calculations inside the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
• Temporarily hold data, instructions, or addresses during processing.
• Types:
 o Accumulator (stores intermediate results)
o Program Counter (stores address of next instruction)
o Instruction Register (stores current instruction)

Example: While executing 5 + 3, the numbers and result are temporarily stored in registers.

5. System Interconnection (Buses)

• A bus is a set of parallel wires connecting CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
• Types of Buses:
1. Data Bus – Transfers actual data.
2. Address Bus – Carries memory addresses.
3. Control Bus – Carries control signals (read, write, clock).

Example: When the CPU wants to read data from memory location 1010:

• Address bus sends 1010,

• Control bus sends a read signal,
• Data bus transfers the data back to CPU.

3. Need for Hardware and Software

A computer system is not just a single machine—it is a combination of hardware (physical
components) and software (programs/instructions).
Both are essential. Without hardware, there is nothing to run the software, and without software, the
hardware is useless.

Hardware

• Physical, touchable components of a computer.

• Hardware is the tangible (touchable) part of a computer—the physical components that form
the body of the computer.
 •
• The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer hardware
consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control computers operation,
input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
• Examples: CPU, RAM, motherboard, keyboard, monitor.

Need of Hardware
• Provides the platform on which software works.
• Enables users to interact with the computer through input/output devices.
• Stores data and instructions.
• Performs all physical operations like display, sound, printing, and calculation.
Example: If you type a report:
• You need a keyboard (hardware) to type.
• The report is shown on the monitor (hardware).
• Stored on the hard disk/SSD (hardware).

Software

• A set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

• Software is a set of programs and instructions that tell the computer what to do and how to
do it. It cannot be touched physically but can be seen and used.
• Examples: Windows OS, MS Office, Tally, Python.
Need of Software
• Converts user instructions into machine language for hardware.
• Helps users perform tasks like writing, calculating, browsing, designing.
• Makes hardware usable and efficient.
Example: Typing in MS Word →
• You type using the keyboard (hardware).
• The command is interpreted by the Operating System (software).
• Text appears in MS Word (software) and displays on the monitor (hardware).

Analogy

Imagine a computer like a human body:

• Hardware = Body parts (e.g., hands, eyes)
• Software = Brain (gives instructions to body parts)

Relationship Between Hardware and Software

• Hardware without software: Useless (like a body without a brain)

• Software without hardware: Cannot function (like a brain with no body)
Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are essential
and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and peripherals as shown in
image below.

Software
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program. Software
instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine language, and executed
by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −
• System software
• Application software
System Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a platform to run an
application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system software include
operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
Application Software - An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or
more tasks. Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle,
etc.

Difference Between Software and Hardware-

Sr.No. Software Hardware

1 It is a collection of programs to bring It includes physical components of computer

computer hardware system into system.
operation.

2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like ICs,

alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, diodes, registers, crystals, boards, insulators,
keywords, etc. etc.

3 Software products evolve by adding Hardware design is based on architectural

new features to existing programs to decisions to make it work over a range of
support hardware. environmental conditions and time.

4 It will vary as per computer and its It is mostly constructed for all types of
built-in functions and programming computer systems.
language.

5 It is designed and developed by The hardware can understand only low-level

experienced programmers in high- language or machine language.
level language.
 6 It is represented in any high-level The hardware works only on binary codes 1s
language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, and 0s.
C++, JAVA, etc.

7 The software is categorized as The hardware consists of input devices, output

operating system, utilities, language devices, memory, etc.
processor, application software, etc.

Hardware Components of a Computer

A computer is made up of two categories of hardware:
1. Internal Hardware Components → Found inside the CPU cabinet, essential for computer
operation.
2. Peripheral Devices → External devices connected to the computer for input, output, storage,
and communication.
Both are necessary for a fully functional system.

1. Internal Hardware Components (Inside CPU Cabinet)

(a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Definition: Known as the “brain of the computer” because it executes instructions.
• Parts of CPU:
1. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Handles calculations (add, subtract, multiply, divide)
and logical comparisons (> , < , =).

▪ Example: When you calculate 25 + 10 in MS Excel, ALU does the

operation.
2. CU (Control Unit): Directs data flow between memory, input/output devices, and
ALU.

▪ Example: When you press “Print,” CU sends instructions to the printer.

3. Registers: Tiny, ultra-fast storage inside CPU that holds temporary data during
processing.

▪ Example: While adding numbers, the intermediate result is stored in

registers.
(b) Motherboard
• Definition: The main circuit board that connects all components.
• Functions:
o Holds CPU, RAM, storage devices, GPU, and expansion cards.
o Provides slots (PCI, DIMM, etc.) for adding new hardware.
o Contains ports for USB, HDMI, Audio, Ethernet.

• Example: Without a motherboard, CPU, RAM, and storage cannot communicate.

(c) Memory (Primary Memory)

1. RAM (Random Access Memory):
o Temporary storage, volatile (data erased when computer is shut down).
o Used for currently running applications.

o Example: When you open Chrome, Word, or YouTube, they load into RAM.

2. ROM (Read Only Memory):

o Permanent memory, non-volatile.
o Stores firmware (BIOS/UEFI) that boots the system.

o Example: When you press the power button, ROM loads the instructions to start
Windows/Linux.
3. Cache Memory:
o Super-fast memory located between CPU and RAM.
o Stores frequently used data to speed up processing.

o Example: Opening a file again is faster because it’s cached.

(d) Storage Devices (Secondary Memory)

• Definition: Permanent storage for programs, files, and operating system.
• Types:
1. HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Mechanical disk storage, cheaper but slower.

▪ Example: Desktop PCs with 1TB HDD for storing movies.

2. SSD (Solid State Drive): Flash memory storage, faster but expensive.

▪ Example: Laptops with SSD boot in <10 seconds.

3. Optical Discs (CD/DVD/Blu-ray): Used for media, backups.

▪ Example: Watching a DVD movie on a PC.

(e) Graphics Processing Unit (GPU / Graphics Card)
• Definition: A processor designed for handling graphics, images, and videos.
• Types:
o Integrated GPU: Built into CPU (basic graphics).
o Dedicated GPU: Separate card for high-performance graphics.

• Example: Gamers need dedicated GPUs like NVIDIA RTX for 3D games.

(f) Power Supply Unit (SMPS)

• Definition: Converts AC (Alternating Current) from wall socket into DC (Direct Current)
needed by computer components.

• Example: Without SMPS, no power reaches CPU, RAM, or motherboard.

(g) Cooling Devices

• Definition: Prevent overheating of CPU, GPU, and motherboard.
• Types:
o Heat Sink (metal piece to absorb heat).
o Cooling Fans (circulate air).
o Liquid Cooling (for gaming/servers).

• Example: Gaming laptops with dual fans stay cool during heavy use.

2. Peripheral Devices (External Hardware Connected to Computer)

(a) Input Devices (Enter Data into Computer)
• Keyboard: For typing text, numbers, commands.
Example: Writing a document in MS Word.

• Mouse: For selecting, clicking, and dragging.

Example: Dragging files into a folder.

• Scanner: Converts paper documents into digital images.

Example: Scanning a signed agreement.

• Microphone: Captures voice input.

Example: Voice typing in Google Docs.

• Webcam: Captures video.

Example: Video calls in Zoom/Google Meet.
 • Touchscreen / Stylus: Used for direct touch or digital drawing.
Example: Writing notes on a tablet.

(b) Output Devices (Show Results of Processing)

• Monitor: Displays visuals.
o CRT (old), LCD/LED (modern).
Example: Watching YouTube video on a monitor.

• Printer: Produces hard copy.

o Inkjet (cheap, high quality).
o Laser (fast, office use).
o 3D Printer (prints physical 3D models).
Example: Printing project report.

• Speakers/Headphones: Output audio.

Example: Listening to music.

• Projector: Displays large visuals on wall/screen.

Example: Classroom teaching presentations.

(c) External Storage Devices

• Pen Drive/USB Stick: Portable small storage.
Example: Transferring photos.

• External HDD/SSD: Backup and large storage.

Example: Saving all college projects.

• Memory Cards (SD card): Used in cameras, mobiles.

Example: Storing photos in DSLR camera.

(d) Networking Devices

• Modem: Connects computer to the internet.
Example: BSNL modem for broadband.

• Router: Shares internet among devices (Wi-Fi).

Example: Home Wi-Fi router.

• Switch/Hub: Connects multiple PCs in a LAN.

Example: Computer lab networking.

• Wi-Fi Adapter: Provides wireless connectivity.

Example: Using Wi-Fi in a desktop PC without built-in wireless card.
(e) Other Peripherals
• Joystick/Game Controller: For playing games.
• Biometric Devices: Fingerprint/iris scanners for authentication.
Example: Biometric attendance in offices.

• VR Headset: For immersive virtual reality experiences.

Example: Virtual reality gaming.

3. Difference Between Internal Hardware & Peripherals

Internal Hardware Peripheral Devices

Located inside CPU cabinet. Located outside CPU cabinet.

Essential for system operation. Enhance usability, not always essential.

Examples: CPU, RAM, GPU, Storage. Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Printer.

4. Real-Life Example: Writing and Printing a Report

1. Keyboard (Input Peripheral): Type content.
2. CPU (Internal): Processes text.
3. RAM (Internal): Stores document temporarily.
4. HDD/SSD (Internal): Saves document permanently.
5. Monitor (Output Peripheral): Displays content.
6. Printer (Output Peripheral): Prints the report.

Both internal components + peripherals are required for complete functioning.

Inside the CPU Cabinet

Component Description
Motherboard Main circuit board that connects all parts
CPU (Processor) Executes instructions (e.g., Intel i5, AMD Ryzen)
RAM (Memory) Temporary working memory, faster than storage
Power Supply Unit (PSU) Converts AC to DC, powers all parts
Cooling System Keeps system from overheating (fans or liquid cooling)
Storage Devices SSDs or HDDs to store files permanently

Peripheral Devices
These are external hardware components connected to the computer system to perform various
functions.
Types of Peripherals

Type Examples Function

Input Devices Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Webcam Enter data into the computer
Output Devices Monitor, Printer, Speakers Display or output data
Input/Output Touchscreen, USB Flash Drive, Modem Both input and output functions

Processors in PCs vs Notebooks

Processors vary based on device type:
Device Processor Type Characteristics
Desktop PCs High-performance CPUs (Intel High clock speed, more cores, higher
i5/i7, AMD Ryzen) heat output
Laptops/Notebooks Mobile CPUs (Intel U/Y Series, Lower power consumption, less heat,
Apple M1) battery-optimized
Tablets/Smartphones ARM-based Processors Extremely power-efficient, optimized
(Qualcomm, MediaTek) for mobility

Types of Computers (Based on Size and Use)

Type Description
Microcomputer Personal desktops or laptops
Minicomputer Mid-sized servers (now outdated)
Mainframe Powerful systems used by banks or government
Supercomputer Extremely fast, used for complex calculations
Embedded Systems Processors within appliances, cars, etc.

Different processors used for personal computers and notebook

computers.
What is Processor?
Processors are the most important component of a computer system. A Processor is a hardware that
performs data input/output, processing, and storage functions for a computer system. In this article,
we are going to discuss processors.
What is the Processor in a Computer?
The processor or CPU is the brain of your computer. It performs program tasks, calculates data from
input, and manages and coordinates other parts like memory, devices connected to the computer, and
what shows up on the screen.
Components of CPU
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Processor
CPU Operations
• Fetch: The processor usually gets instructions from RAM.
• Decode: A decoder translates an instruction into signals that the computer's other parts can
use.
• Execute: Each component receives the now-decoded instructions.
• Store: After the execute step the instructions are ready to store in the memory.
Types of Processors
• Single Core Processors: The oldest type of computer CPUs is single core CPU. These CPUs
were used in the 1970s. these CPUs only have a single core that preform different operations.
This means that the single core CPU can only process one operation at a single time. single
core CPU is not suitable for multitasking.
• Dual-Core Processors: Dual-Core CPUs contain a single Integrated Circuit with two cores.
Each core has its cache and controller. These controllers and cache are work as a single unit.
dual core CPUs can work faster than the single-core processors.
• Quad-Core Processors: Quad-Core CPUs contain two dual-core processors present within a
single integrated circuit (IC) or chip. A quad-core processor contains a chip with four
independent cores. These cores read and execute various instructions provided by the CPU.
Quad Core CPU increases the overall speed for programs. Without even boosting the overall
clock speed it results in higher performance.
Which Processor Should You Select?
When upgrading processor, check if motherboard supports the new one. Intel motherboards don't
work with AMD processors and vice versa. Some motherboards only support old processors, so new
one may not be compatible. Certain motherboards only support latest processors. Make sure
motherboard and new processor match. If not, either get new motherboard for that processor or new
processor for existing motherboard. If compatible, here's a basic performance breakdown from AMD
and Intel based on your needs:
• CPUs with AMD Ryzen 3/Intel Core i3 architecture are typically found in the most affordable
models.
• This is much more of a "everyday" type of CPU, AMD Ryzen 5/Intel Core i5. It can perform
really well and reasonable.
• These chips—AMD Ryzen 7 and Intel Core i7—are perfect for PC gaming and light-duty
creative content creation.
• Regardless of price, the enthusiast market expects the finest performance, and AMD Ryzen
9/Intel Core i9 is the best option currently available.