Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants : Angiosperms.

Part 1 : Pre-Fertilization Events.

1. Pre-Fertilization Events : The events which occur before the fusion of two gametes are
termed ‘Pre-Fertilisation’ events.
Two main Pre-Fertilization events are :
• Gametogenesis : It is the process of formation of gametes. In plants, the formation of
male gametes is termed as Microsporogenesis and the formation of female gametes is
termed as Megasporogenesis.
• Pollination : The transfer of mature male gametophyte (or pollen grains) from the anther
to the stigma of a pistil in the female gamete (or egg cell), is termed as Pollination.
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2. Structure of Flower : Flowers are considered as modified shoot bearing and fascinating
reproductive organs in Angiosperms. A Flower mainly consists of :
• Calyx (Sepals).
• Corolla (Petals).
• Androecium (Stamens) : Each Stamen
consists of Anther and Filament.
• Gynoecium (Pistils or Carpels) : Each Pistil
or Carpel consists of Stigma, Style and Ovary.
• These whorls are attached on the central
axis, which is called Thalamus.

Note : Out of this four whorls, Calyx (Sepals) and Corolla (Petals) are called the non-
essential or accessory whorls because their main function involves in the protection of
flowers; whereas Androecium and Gynoecium are called the essential and reproductive
whorls because they are directly involved in the sexual reproduction.
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a. 1. Male Reproductive Part of Flowers : Stamens are called the male reproductive parts of
the Flower. They are attached either to the Thalamus or to the Petals of the Flower. The
Stamens collectively form the male whorls or Androecium. They are also called as
Microsporophylls.
The two parts of a typical Stamen are : 2 Lobes : Bilobed Structure.
• Filament : It is the long and slender stalk, which 1 Lobe = 2 Theca (Dithecous)
supports the Anther terminally. The proximal end of 2 Lobes = 4 Theca
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Filament is attached to Thalamus or Petals of the Flower.
• Anther : Anther is a called a swollen Bilobed like structure because it contains two lobes.
Each lobe contains two theca, which is called dithecous. The terminal end of Filament is
attached to Anther.
Note : In the cross-section of Anther, it appears as a four sided (Tetragonal) structure, which
consists of four Microsporangium, located at four corners (i.e. two in each lobe). The
microsporangium further develops and become pollen sacs, which contains male
gametophytes (or pollen grains).
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2. Structure of Microsporangium (or Pollen Sac) : A typical Microsporangium is generally
surrounded by four layers of wall : Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layers and Tapetum.
• The outer-most three layers of wall : Epidermis, Endothecium and Middle layers; performs
the function of protection and helps in dehiscence of Anther to release pollen.
• The innermost layer i.e. Tapetum; helps in providing nourishment to the developing pollen
grains. The cells of Tapetum possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more than one
nucleus.
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3. Microsporogenesis : The process of formation of Microspores (or pollen grains) from a
Pollen Mother Cell (PMC) i.e. each cell of a sporogenous tissue through meiosis; is termed
as Microsporogenesis.

Sporogenous Tissue : Sporogenous As the Anther develops, the cells of the

Tissue is a group of compactly arranged sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic
homogeneous cells, which are present division, to form Microspore tetrad.
at the centre of each Microsporangium, As each cell of the sporogenous tissue is
when the Anther is young. capable to give rise to a Microspore tetrad.
That’s why, each one is called a potential
pollen or Pollen mother cell (PMC).

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4. Structure of Microspores (or Pollen Grains) : Pollen Grains represents the male
gametophyte of Flowers and are spherical in shape, measuring about 25-50 μm in diameter.
Pollen grains are generally covered with two prominent layers of wall : Exine and Intine.
• Exine : Exine is the hard outer layer covering made up of Sporopollenin, which is the most
resistant organic material known and can withstand high temperatures, enzymes, strong
acidic and alkaline conditions.
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• Intine : Intine is the inner layer covering of pollen grains, which is made up of cellulose
and pectin.
Note : The opening on the pollen grain’s Exine wall where Sporopollenin is absent, is called
Germ Pore.
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5. Types of cells in Pollen Grains : A mature pollen grain contains two types of cells :
Vegetative Cell and Generative Cell.

Vegetative Cell. (VC) Generative Cell. (GC)

• The Vegetative cell is bigger in size • The Generative cell is small,
and has abundant food reserve; with spindle-shaped and floats on the
a large irregular shape nucleus. cytoplasm of the Vegetative cell.
• The Vegetative cell does not divides • The Generative cell further divides
further. mitotically to give rise to two male
gamates.
Note :
• In about 60% of the Angiosperms, pollen grains sheds at 2-celled stage
(1 Vegetative cell + 1 Generative cell).
• In about 40% of the Angiosperms, pollen grains sheds at 3-celled stage
(1 Vegetative Cell + 2 Generative cell). It is so because in this 40% of Angiosperms, the
Generative cell further divides to give rise to two male gamates before pollination.
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6. Describe the meaning of Viability of Pollen Grains.
Ans: The period for which pollen grains retain their ability to germinate, is called the
Viability of Pollen Grains. Viability of Pollen Grains depends on factors such as temperature
and humidity.
Viability of Pollen Grains varies from species to species, e.g. 30 minutes in case of wheat
and rice; whereas upto several months in some members of Solanaceae, Rosaceae and
Leguminosae.
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7. Mention the economic importance of Pollen grains.
Ans: The economic importance of Pollen Grains are :
• Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. That’s why, it is used in pollen tablets and syrups as
food supplements.
• Pollen consumption has also claimed that it increases the performance of athletes and
race horses.

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• Pollen grains can be also stored in pollen banks, which can be later on used for crop
breeding experiment.
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8. Mention the harmful effects of Pollen grains on human beings.
Ans: Harmful effects of Pollen grains on human beings are :
• Pollen grains of many species causes severe allergic and bronchial afflictions in human
beings, which often leads to chronic respiratory disorders like -- Asthma and Bronchitis.
For example : Parthenium (or Carrot grass).
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b. 1. Female Reproductive Part of Flowers : Pistils are called the female reproductive parts
of Flower. The Pistils collectively form the female whorls or Gynoecium. They are also called
as Megasporophylls.
The main three parts of pistil are :
• Stigma : The landing platform for pollen grains is called Stigma.
• Style : The long and slender stalk beneath the stigma is called the Style.
• Ovary : The basal bulged part of the pistil is called Ovary. Inside the ovary there is the
ovarian cavity, called Locule; where the placenta is placed.
Note : After fertilization, the Ovule develops as seed; whereas the Ovary develops as fruit.
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2. Structure of Megasporangium (or Ovule) : Ovule is a small structure attached to
Placenta. A typical Megasporangium consists of :
• Funicle : Funicle is a stalk which connects the Ovule with placenta.
• Hilum : Hilum is the region where the Ovule and Funicle meets.
• Integuments : Each Ovule has two protective layers of coverings called Integuments
(Outer and Inner); which covers the Ovule, except at a small opening called Micropyle.
• Micropylar End : Pollen grains enters the Ovule through a small Micropylar opening,
called Micropyle.
• Chalazal End : Opposite to the Micropylar End, is the Chalazal End, representing the basal
part of the Ovule.
Note : Enclosed within the Integuments is a mass of cell called the Nucellus (2n). After
fertilization, the outer integument of the ovule becomes Testa (tough) and the inner
integument becomes Tegmen (delicate).
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3. Megasporogenesis : The process of formation of megaspores from Megaspore Mother
Cell (MMC) through meiosis; is termed as Megasporogenesis. It takes place in the Nucellus
cells (2n) of the developing Ovule.
After the Megasporogenesis, four haploid megaspores are formed, out of which one
becomes functional and rest of the three degenerates. Only the functional megaspore
develops into the female gametophyte (embryo sac). This method of embryo sac formation
from a single megaspore is termed as Monosporic development.
Note : Nucellus is a tissue present in the central part of the young ovule, in which the
embryo sac develops. It provides nutrition to the developing embryo.
Development : The functional megaspore undergoes 3 consecutive divisions to form a
8-nucleate and 7-celled Embryo Sac.
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4. Structure of Female Gametophyte (or Embryo Sac) :
• Out of four nuclei at the Micropylar end, 3 gets differentiate to form Egg Apparatus
(consisting of 2 synergids and one egg cell). The Synergids have special cellular thickening
elements at the Micropylar tip called Filiform apparatus; which plays an important role in
guiding the pollen grains into the Synergids. The egg cell is also called as ‘Oosphore’.
• Similarly, at the Chalazal end, 3 out of 4 nuclei are grouped together and are called as
Antipodal Cells.
• The remaining nuclei, one from the micropylar end and one from the chalazal end; comes
together and are termed as Polar Nuclei. This migrate towards the centre of the Embryo sac,
which is now called as the Central Cell.
That’s why a typical Angiosperm embryo sac is called 8-nucleate and 7-celled.
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Pollination : The transfer of mature male gametophyte (or pollen grains) from the
anther to the stigma of a pistil, is termed as Pollination.
i. Autogamy : The transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of the same flower, is
termed as Autogamy.
For example : Viola and Oxalis.
Requirements for Autogamy :
• Autogamy requires the anther and stigma to
lie closely.
• Autogamy also requires the synchrony of
pollen grains and stigma, respectively.

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 ii. Geitonogamy : The transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower but in the same plant, is termed as
Geitonogamy. For example : Maize and corn. Note :
Geitonogamy is functionaly a cross-pollination, but genetically it is a self-pollination. iii.
Xenogamy : The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of different plant, is
termed as Xenogamy. This is the only type of pollination which brings genetically different
types of pollen grains to the stigma.
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1. Agents of Pollination :

i. Anemophily : Pollination by wind.

• Flowers are colourless and small, without fragrance and
nectar.
• Stigmas are usually large, feathery and well-exposed,
due to which it easily traps the air-borne pollen grains.
• Pollen grains are light, dry and non-sticky, so that they
can be easily transported in wind currents.
In Abiotic agents, wind pollination
• Pollen grains are produced in a large quantity.
is more common than water
For example : 25 million pollen grains of Maize are
pollination.
produced together, Cannabis (5 lakh pollens), cotton and
date-palm.
Note : Pollen grains of wind pollinated flowers are produced in large quantities because
they are generally very small and their is a high wastage.

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ii. Hydrophily : Pollination by water. (seen in Bryophytes, Pteridophytes and Algae)
• Flowers are colourless and small, without fragrance and nectar.
• Stigmas are usually long and sticky. For example : Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Zostera.
• Not all aquatic plants uses water for pollination. In a majority of aquatic plants such as
water hyacinth and water lily, they gets pollinated by insects and wind; as most of their
plant part is above the water surface.
iii. Entomophily : Pollination by insects.
• Flowers are large and colourful, with fragrance and nectar.
For example : Sunflower and Rose.
• Pollen grains are covered with yellowish and sticky substance called Pollen kit. This makes
the pollen grains stick to the body of the insects.
• Insects are attracted towards flowers by seeing it’s colour and fragrance. To sustain their
regular visit, the flowers provide them nectar and edible pollen grains, which are called the

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 floral rewards.
• Floral rewards can be also in the form of providing safe place for laying eggs.
For example : The tallest flower of Amorphophallus.
Note : Bees, butterflies, wasp, ant, moth, etc; are the common pollinating agents. Among
these insects, particularly Bees are the dominating Biotic pollinating agents.

Nectar Robbers : Many insects may consume pollen and nectar without bringing
fertilization in plants. Such floral visitors are referred to as pollen or nectar robbers.

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Advantages of Self-Pollination are : Advantages of Cross-Pollination are :
• The specie's purity is preserved. • Healthier offsprings are produced.
• Most of the pollen grains are not wasted. • Cross-Pollination results to the formation of new
• Plants do not require to create scented individuals with genetic variantions and useful
and nectar-filled flowers to attract insects. characteristics.
• Cross-Pollination also helps the plant in adapting
new environmental features.
2.

Cleistogamous Flowers : Chasmogamous Flowers :

• Flowers are closed and in which anther and • Flowers are open and expose their
stigma lies closely to each other. reproductive parts.
Example : Viola, mirabilis, etc. Example : Hibiscus, rose.
• Self pollination. This flowers can produce Cross pollination.
seeds even without pollinators.
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3. Outbreeding Devices : Devices to prevent self-pollination and to encourage
cross-pollination, such outbreeding devices are :
• Prevention of Autogamy (Dichogamy) : In bisexual flowers, anthers and stigma mature at
different time (not synchronised). Either the pollen is released before the stigma becomes
receptive; or the stigma becomes receptive before than the release of pollen grain.
• Production of Unisexual flowers (Dicliny) : Flowers are unisexual, therefore self-pollination
is not possible.
• Protandry : Anthers become mature earlier than stigmas of the same
flower. For example : sunflower, salvia.
• Protogyny : Stigmas become mature earlier than anther of the same
flower. For example : Mirabilis.

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4. Pollen-Pistil Interaction : Pollination does not guarantee the transfer of the right type of
pollen (from same specie) to the stigma. Often, pollen grains of wrong type (from other
species) may also land on the stigma. The Pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen grain,
whether it is of the right type (compatible) or of the wrong type (incompatible). If the pollen
grain is of right type, then the pistil accepts the pollen and promotes post-fertilization
events that leads to fertilization.
Pollen tube, after reaching the Ovary, enters the Ovule through the Micropylar end and
then enters one of the Synergids through the Filiform apparatus.

There are several ways of entry of pollen tube into the ovule. They are as follows :
• Porogamy : In this, pollen tube enters the Ovule through the Micropylar end.
• Mesogamy : In this, pollen tube enters the Ovule through the Integuments or through
Funicle.
• Chalazogamy : In this, pollen tube enters the Ovule through the Chalazal end.
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5. Artificial Hybridisation : Artificial Hybridisation is used for crop improvement. This is
achieved by Emasculation and Bagging technique.
• Emasculation : Emasculation is a process of removing anthers of a bisexual flower using a
pair of forceps, without affecting the female reproductive part before the anther dehisces.
• Bagging : Emasculated flowers are covered with a bag made up of butter paper, to prevent
the contamination of stigma from unwanted pollen grains. This process is called as Bagging.
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i. Parthenocarpy : The process of formation of fruits without fertilization, is called
Parthenocarpy. For example : Apples, Tomatoes, Bananas, Grapes, etc -- are called
Parthenocarpic fruits. It is a special type of apoximis.
ii. Apomixis : The process of formation of seeds without fertilization, is called Apomixis.
A few flowering plants such as some species of Asteraceae and grasses, have
developed this special mechanism of Apomixis.
iii. Polyembryony : The phenomenon of occurring more than one embryo in a single
seed, is called Polyembryony. For example : Citrus (orange), onion, mango.
The embryos formed as a result of polyembryony are genetically similar to one other.
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In angiospermic plants, Double Fertilization

Part 2 : Fertilization.
was discovered by Nawaschin.
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1. Double Fertilization : After entering through one of the Synergids, the pollen tube
releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the Synergid. One of the male gametes
move towards the egg cell and fuses with it’s nucleus, thereby completing Syngamy. This
results to the formation of a diploid cell (2n) called Zygote.
The other male gamete move towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and
fuses with them. This results to the formation of a triploid (3n) Primary Endosperm Nucleus
(PEN). As this involves the fusion of three haploid nuclei, it is also called as Triple Fusion.
Since two types of fusion -- Syngamy and Triple Fusion takes place in an embryo sac, the
whole phenomenon is also termed as Double Fertilisation.

1 Male gamete (n) + Egg Cell (n) --------> Zygote (2n); Syngamy.
1 Male gamete (n) + 2 Polar Nuclei (2n) --------> PEN (3n); Triple Fusion.

Note : After Triple Fusion, the central cell becomes the Primary Endosperm Cell (PEC). The
Primary Endosperm Nucleus gives rise to the Endosperm, whereas the Zygote develops into
Embryo.
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Part 3 : Post-Fertilization Events.

1. Post-Fertilization Events : The events which occur after the fusion of two gametes are
termed ‘Post-Fertilisation’ events.
Two main Post-Fertilization events are :
• Development of Endosperm and Embryo.
• Maturation of Ovule into seeds and Ovary into fruits.
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2. Development of Endosperm : Endosperm develops in three different ways :
• Free Nuclear type : The PEN repeatedly divides to give rise to free nuclei without wall
formation.
• Cellular type : The PEN repeatedly divides to give rise to nuclei with wall formation.
• Helobial type : Helobial type of Endosperm development is an intermediate between Free
nuclear and cellular type.
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3. Fruits : Developed from the Ovary. Fruits are mainly covered by three layers of walls
called Pericarp :
• Epicarp (outer layer) : It forms the outer skin.

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• Mesocarp (middle layer) : It is the edible and fleshy region.
• Endocarp (inner layer) : It is the innermost region containing seeds.
• In few species such as apple, strawberry and cashew, the Thalamus also contributes to
fruit formation. Such fruits are called false fruits (not developed from ripened ovary).
However, most fruits develop from ripened ovary and are called as true fruits. Eg : mango
and tomato.
Significance of Fruits : Fruits are necessary because :
• They are the main source of energy for human beings and animals.
• They also provides useful nutrients such as sugar, vitamins and minerals.
• They protect the seed from the outer environmental conditions. And also helps in the
dispersal of seeds to get accustomed with new habitats.
4. Seeds : In Angiosperms, the seed is called the final product of sexual reproduction. Seeds
are often described as a fertilised Ovule.
A seed consists of : Seed coat (Testa and Tegmen), Cotyledons and Embryonal axis.
Endospermic (or Albuminous seeds) : Non-Endospermic (or Exalbuminous seeds) :
• It contains Endosperm; cotyledons are • It do not contain Endosperm; cotyledons
small, thin and papery. are thick and fleshy.
Eg : Castor, wheat and rice. Eg : Bean, pea and orchids.

Perisperm. : Pericarp :
• The remaining of the Nucellus cells which are
• As Ovule matures as seed and
persistent in some seeds of black pepper and Ovary matures as fruit. The wall of
beet, is called Perisperm. the ovary develops as the wall of the
fruit called Pericarp.
• It represents the remaining Nucellus cells. • It represents the Ovarian wall.
Dicot seed. Eg : Bean seed. Monocot seed. Eg : Maize grain.
• They possess two cotyledons. • They possess a single cotyledon, called scutellum. And
the second cotyledon is reduced to epiblast.
• Plumule lies in between the • Plumule lies on one side of the single cotyledon, which
two cotyledons. is covered by coleoptile.
• Food is stored in the • Food is stored in Endosperm.
Cotyledons.

Note : Integuments form the covering of the Ovule, whereas as Testa and Tegmen forms the
covering of the seed called Seed coat.
5. Significance of seed dispersal :
• Seed dispersal prevents overcrowding.

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• Seed dispersal also promotes the survival of plant species, by allowing the seedling to
explore more areas.
• In the absence of seed dispersal, all seeds might germinate near the parent plant.

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6. Significance of Double Fertilization : • Nucellus : Perisperm.
• Two main products are obtained as a result of double • Egg cell : Embryo.
fertilization : Zygote and PEN. • Antipodals and Synergids :
gets degenerate.
• Double Fertilization gives rise to Endosperm which provides
nourishment to the developing Embryo.
• It increases the viability of seeds in Angiosperms.

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