Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research
Volume 3, Issue 1, 2016, pp. 232-240
Available online at www.jallr.com
ISSN: 2376-760X
Self-Directed Learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Iranian
EFL Learners at the advanced Level of Language Proficiency
Najmieh Basereh
M.A. in TEFL, Islamic azad university, Bandar Abbas Branch
Kian Pishkar *
Faculty Member of Islamic Azad University, Jieroft Branch
Abstract
Iranian EFL students who were studying English at the advanced level in Language Institute in
Bandar Abbas, Iran were chosen based on their performance in a TOEFL PBT from among
80 EFL learners to shape the participants of the study. The participants received the General
Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), which has been validated by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995) and a
standard copy of Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) developed by Guglielmino
(1977). The findings of the present study revealed that there was a significant relationship
between Self-Efficacy Belief and self-directed learning of Iranian EFL learners at the advanced
level of Language Proficiency. The findings of the study could be used by English teachers,
and EFL learners in the EFL and ESL context.
Keywords: self-directed learning, self-efficacy belief, learner autonomy
INTRODUCTION
In today’s modern world of communication, English language teaching (ELT) has gained
an upsurge attention in many foreign countries such as Iran. According to Pishghadam
and Naji Meidani (2011), “ELT in Iran has become a widely established field, nurtured
by modern theories and backed by a large body of research, all due to the importance of
the English language” (p. 21). They also compared the status of English language with
other languages and asserted that "Other foreign language fields seem to be deprived of
such vast number of resources, innovations, recent models of education, and research-
based perspectives in English teaching and learning" (p.21). In fact, English language
has found its status in Iran as the most dominant foreign language taught in educational
setting and academic environment. Along with the exceptional growth of English as an
international language as well as the upsurge interest toward today's growing
technology and science transfer, learning English as an effective means of
communication has recently become more pronounced in Iran (Talebinezhad & Sadeghi,
2005). Increase in the number of English language institutes and their students as well
* Correspondence: Kian Pishkar, Email: [email protected]
© 2016 Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(1) 233
as the extended interest of parents to encourage the children to learn English can be
taken as the strong evidences for the recent assigned value to English language in Iran.
Learning a language involves some perplex mental processes, like aptitude, self-
confidence, self-efficacy, having different levels of motivation, learners’ different
cognitive styles, and plenty of some other factors. Self-Efficacy Belief (Bandura, 1993, as
cited in Haddoune, 2012) as generative capability and Self-directed Learning (Long,
1989, as cited in Francis & Flanigan, 2012) as learning strategies have been studied by
researchers in the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and English Language Teaching
(ELT).
Self-efficacy is a learner's belief in his/her ability to succeed in a particular situation or
activity (Bandura, 2000). Zimmerman et al. (2010) presented that the students’
aspiration can be her belief in her academic efficacy. Hosseini Fatemi and Vahidnia
(2013) argued the association between Iranian EFL learners’ motivation and self-
efficacy and presented that “there exists a significant association between EFL learners’
self-efficacy and their intrinsic motivation” (p.79). They also asserted that among
subscales of motivation, a motivation is negatively related to students’ self-efficacy.
Another issue of interest for educationist is self-directed learning which encourages
autonomous learning and encourages learners in a deliberate and planned learning,
i.e.in any action designed to help learning. Gibbons (2002) defined that self-directed
learning is seen as any study from in which individuals have primary responsibility for
planning, implementing and even evaluating the effort. (p12). Ramedonck (2003)
argued that self-directedness is a domain-specific concept. An individual may
demonstrated a low/high level of self-directness in language proficiency. The present
study is going to provide insight about effectiveness of self-efficacy belief and self-
directed learning among EFL learners as way of improving Language proficiency. The
overall purpose of the study is to explore the relationship among self-efficacy belief and
self-directed learning among EFL learners at the advanced level of Language
proficiency. To do so the present research was designed to explore the significant points
in this regard.
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
Language Proficiency
In foreign language learning, one of the most important factors for the learners is the
method which teachers use in their teaching to facilitate learning (Ahmadi Gilani, Ismail
&Pourhossein, 2012). They believed that development of various skills of the English
language in young generation is an important element in their preparation for effective
roles in the society. Despite the recognition of the value of English language learning in
the world, there are some obstacles to achieving acceptable standards of teaching and
learning in this area. But, learning strategies should be focused on this area and help
students to improve their English language learning through gaining strategies
(Chareonwongsak, 2002).
Self-Directed Learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Iranian EFL Learners 234
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy was originated from social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura. Social
cognitive theory states that the belief each individual has about his capabilities is critical
to improvement and mastery. Bandura (1986) defined self-efficacy as “people’s
judgments of capability to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performance. It is concerned not with the skill that one has but with
the judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses” (p.391)
According to Bandura (2002) increased self-efficacy can positively affect a person’s
choice of task, the efforts one puts to complete a task and the persistence till mastery of
the task. Tilfarlioglu and Cinkara (2009) asserted that "self-efficacy beliefs regulate
human functioning through cognitive, motivational, affective, and decisional processes"
(p.130). Eslami and Fatahi (2008), examined the efficacy beliefs of nonnative English
speaking (NNES) of Iranian EFL teachers. In their study, EFL teachers' perceptions of
their teaching efficacy in terms of personal capabilities to teach English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) and their perceived English language proficiency level were examined.
The results showed that the teachers' perceived efficacy was positively correlated with
self-reported English proficiency. The findings also revealed that the more efficacious
the teachers felt, the more inclined they were to use communicative-based strategies.
Self-directed Learning
In the 1970’s, Knowles and other educators such as Carl Rogers were the pioneers of
promoting the idea of that education needed to back off teacher-centered classes in
which directed learning was fashion of the day, towards learner-centered contexts or
facilitated learning. Supporters of this approach suggested that education should adjust
to the needs and wants of learners rather than the other way around. In this view,
teachers’ role will change; they need to move out of the role of ‘the leader of orchestra’
and to that of ‘facilitator on the side’ in which learning become more in the form of
collaborative between the teacher and students and also among the students
themselves. Meanwhile, students are encouraged to become more involved or self-
directing in their learning. The notion of self-directed learning is based on the
humanistic paradigm, the underlying assumption of which is that education should
focus on the development of the individual.
According to Herod (2002), in self-directed learning “the goal of education becomes
more about process which lines in the development of critical thinking skills, and
maturation as a person and a citizen than the content, which pertains to acquisition of
subject-based knowledge/skills.” (p.10). Also, Barer-Stein and Draper (1988) suggested:
This approach focused on encouraging people to explore the depths of
their feelings, building self-concept, and valuing human life. The goal
was to maximize human potential, building on the innate goodness of
the individual, with the support of empathetic teachers as facilitators
and partners in learning … . This philosophy is especially evident in
adult education programs today which value learning as a process and
which encourage discussion and self-discovery (p. 61).
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(1) 235
RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS
The present study focuses on the following research question:
Q: Is there any significant relationship between Self-Efficacy Belief and Self-directed
learning among Iranian EFL learners at advanced level of Language proficiency?
H0: There is no significant relationship between Self-Efficacy Belief and Self-directed
learning among Iranian EFL learners at the advanced level of Language proficiency.
METHOD
Participants
The EFL Iranian participants taking part in the present study were 60 EFL Iranian
students who were studying English at the advanced level in a private Language
Institute in Bandar Abbas. Both male and female students participated in the current
study and their age ranges from 18 to 30 years old. The participants will be selected
based on the results of the learners’ performance on a standardized paper based TOEFL
which will be given to 80 advanced students and those who are scored 1 SD below and
above the mean will be asked to take part in the study .This ensures if the learners know
enough English and can answer the questions in the Questionnaires appropriately.
Instruments
In the current study, one standard test as pre-test and two questionnaires were used to
collect required data. The pre-test, paper based TOEFL was administered to determine
the participants' level of proficiency. One of the questionnaires was on self-efficacy (The
General Self-Efficacy written by Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1979) and another was a Self-
Directed Learning questionnaire developed by (Guglielmino, 1977).
Procedure
In order to study the null hypothesis of this research study, and to investigate any
significant relationship among the aforementioned variables, the present study was
conducted in a private language institute in Bandar Abbas. At first 80 advanced EFL
students studying English in a language institute in Bandar Abbas received a
standardized paper based TOEFL. Then, based on the learners’ performance we selected
60 EFL learners studying in the advanced level. The test was given to the participants
and those who were scored 1 Standard Deviation (1SD) below and above the mean
were asked to take part in the study. The participants were both males and females with
the age range of 18-30. The selected learners received the two questionnaires of Self-
Efficacy Belief and Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale. The data were collected and
analyzed via SPSS software; version 21, and then reported and checked against the
research questions of the study.
Self-Directed Learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Iranian EFL Learners 236
Design
The present study enjoyed an Ex post Facto Design. The reason is that, based on Hatch
and Lazaraton (1991), there was no treatment involved in the study, nor was the study
concerned with the leaning process the participants might have gone through as a
significant factor. No control was implemented over the effect of independent variables
of the study on the dependent variable .None of the variables of the study were
manipulated to cause changes, either. What was of paramount importance then was the
type and strength of the connection between variables of the study; therefore an Ex Post
Facto Design was the appropriate design for the accomplishment of the purpose of the
study (Field, 2009).
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics was used to calculated the mean and standard deviation of the
TOEFL test which was used. Also the reliability of TOEFL test used was calculated
through running KR-21.Pearson correlation was conducted to analyze data to indicate
the relationship among self-directed learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Advanced
EFL learners. Also the reliability, and construct validity of the questionnaires used were
calculated through running KR-21 and factor analysis, respectively and compared with
the reported ones in the literature.
TOEFL Test of General Language Proficiency
As the students were at the advanced level in the institute, the TOEFL (PBT version, May
2010, released by the ETS) was administered to 80 subjects. Based on the mean plus
and minus one standard deviation, 60 subjects were selected to participate in the main
study. The TOEFL test enjoyed a reliability of .91.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of TOEFL
N Mean Std. Deviation Variance KR-21
TOEFL 80 52.19 16.193 262.211 .91
Analysis of the Research Question
RQ: Is there any statistically significant relationship between Self-Efficacy Belief and
self-directed learning among Iranian EFL learners at Advanced level of language
proficiency?
A Pearson correlation was run to find the relationship between self-efficacy belief and
self-directed learning among Iranian EFL learners at Advanced level of language
proficiency and the results showed that there was a significant relationship between
self-directed learning and self-efficacy belief of Iranian EFL learners (r (58) = .81, P < .05
representing a large effect size). Thus, the null-hypothesis as “there is no statistically
significant relationship between self-efficacy belief and self-directed learning among
Iranian EFL learners at Advanced level of language proficiency was rejected.
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(1) 237
Table 2. Pearson Correlation; Self-Efficacy with Self-directed Learning
Self-Efficacy
Pearson Correlation .813**
Self-Directed Learning Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 60
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
KR-21 Reliability
Test reliability is one of the main concepts for any academic test. As Bachman and
Palmer (2010) imply, a test is not valid unless it is reliable. One of the common methods
of calculating test reliability is employing Kuder-Richarson 21 (KR-21) formula. In this
formula, the reliability could be calculated through using the number of test items,
mean, and standard deviation of the test scores ( Bachman and Palmer, 2010).The KR-
21 reliability indices for the self-directed learning (.68) and self-efficacy (.82) are
displayed in Table 3.
Table 3. KR-21 Reliability Index
N Mean Variance KR-21
Self-Directed Learning 60 8.84 2.621 0.68
Self-Efficacy Belief 60 40.20 69.313 0.82
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The central aim of this thesis was to investigate the relationship among self-efficacy
belief and self-directed learning among EFL learners at advanced Level of Language
Proficiency in a private language institute in Bandar Abbas city. The researcher hopes
that the results of the present study could shed more lights on this area, and teachers
would hopefully take what has been presented here and apply it to their own situations
in order to improve their students and improve their learning styles and strategies in
the EFL development.
The findings of the present study revealed that there was a significant relationship
between self-directed learning and self-efficacy belief of Iranian advanced EFL learners.
Findings of the study are in line with the findings of other researchers recorded in the
literature. The finding asserts the positive relationship between EFL learners’ self-
directed learning and self-efficacy belief. This study is in line with Sharifi and
Ahangary’s (2015) study on the correlation between Iranian advanced EFL learners’
self-regulation capacity and their self-efficacy. Having run the correlations analysis, the
results revealed that there was a significant correlation between participants' emotional
intelligence and their self-regulation capacity. Broadbent and Poon (2015) also found
that self-directed learning strategies and academic achievement in online higher
education learning environments have a significant relationship.
Bonyadi, Nikou, and Shahbaz (2012) in their study concerning the relationship between
EFL learners’ self-efficacy beliefs and their language learning strategy use, found that
Self-Directed Learning and Self-Efficacy Belief among Iranian EFL Learners 238
self-efficacy belief can be defined as any strategy that requires students to judge their
own language abilities or language performance. Magogwe and Oliver (2007), in their
study concerning the relationship between self-efficacy and self-directed learning
argued that accurate self-directed learning may lead learners to more efficacies to
perform a task.
Zheng, Young, Brewer, and Wagner (2013) examined the effect of self-efficacy belief on
school students' achievement in math and English, as the courses needing critical
thinking, at the beginning and end of school year. The results of their study indicated
that self-efficacy was a strong predictor of math and English achievement and critical
thinking enhancement. Lai and Gu (2011) presented that there is a high correlation
between achievement-related self-system factors in relation to children's critical
thinking. In line with the previous research on the relationship between critical thinking
and self-efficacy, Nemat Tabrizi and Jafari (2015) found that significant relationships
between critical thinking and reading comprehension at elementary, intermediate and
advanced levels. Also they found that there were significant relationships between self-
efficacy and reading comprehension at elementary, intermediate and advanced levels,
and thirdly, there were significant relationships between critical thinking and self-
efficacy at elementary, intermediate and advanced levels. Clarke (2014) also asserts
that self-efficacy belief accompanied with critical thinking and second language reading
ability are highly connected as learners with high self-efficacy and critical thinking
ability enjoy better reading ability compared to the learners with low self-efficacy or
low critical thinking ability.
This finding is in line with the previous findings in the literature pertained to the
relationship between EFL learners’ self-directed learning and self-efficacy belief
(Barkley, 2006; Bonyadi, et al., 2012; Broadbent & Poon, 2015; Elder, 2007; Lai, 2013;
Lai & Gu, 2011; Magogwe & Oliver, 2007; Meshkat & Hassanzade, 2014; Nemat Tabrizi
& Jafari, 2015; Naseri & Zaferanieh, 2012; Sadeghy & Mansouri, 2014; Sharifi &
Ahangary, 2015; Zheng, et al., 2013), one can conclude that learning styles such as self-
efficacy belief, learning strategies such as self-directed learning are in close connection
and positive correlation for the advanced EFL learners .
According to the results of the present study, some implications for teaching and
learning can be suggested. The present findings could be employed by second language
teachers to make the learners more aware of what they are dealing with. The
assumption is being aware of learning styles facilitates learning (Prat‐Sala & Redford,
2010), and learners must pay attention to the features of input they are exposed to and
notice the gap between the target like forms in it and the current state of their linguistic
knowledge. This could be done through a kind of cognitive comparison which has been
seen as one of the crucial processes in language acquisition (Rostami, 2014). Oakley
(2011), within the framework of SLA pays attention to the role learning styles play in L2
development. Although he does not merely focus on self-efficacy and self-directed
learning, he emphasizes the significant relationship between such factors and second
language development. English teachers and learners could employ the present findings
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(1) 239
and focus on the mismatch between input they receive and their current learning. This
way the classroom interactions could be enriched and would help subsequent L2
development of the learners. Materials developers in the ELT domain also could employ
the findings of the present study and those of the similar ones to present tasks in which
learners’ awareness toward learning is enhanced. Such tasks may help the learners
move towards self-correction, autonomy, and meaningful learning.
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