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NETWORKING
A computer network can be defined as a collection of interconnected computers in such a way
that they share resources. A computer system only referred to a group of the computers and
hardware components interconnected by communicating channels that allow sharing of
resources and information. It is the practice of interfacing two or more computing devices with
each other to share data. Computer networks are built with a combination of hardware and
software. Technically, If at least one process in one computer can send or receive data to/from
at least one process residing on a remote computer, then two machines are said to be a
network.
A computer network consists of a collection of computers, printers and other equipment that
are connected together so that they can communicate with each other. It is also defined as a
group of two or more computer systems linked together.
A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are
called nodes or host.
WAYS OF CONNECTING COMPUTERS
The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet
cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like
access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose
connection, which allows a single computer to do more.

Networking is the construction, design, and use of a network, including the physical
(cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and so forth), the selection and use of
telecommunication protocol and computer software for using and managing the network, and
the establishment of operation policies and procedures related to the network.
Computer Networking is the scientific and engineering discipline concerned with
communication between computer systems.

USES OF NETWORK
Networks are used to:
1. Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.
2. Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner
3. Enable file sharing across the network
4. Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems
5. Make information easier to access and maintain among network users
NETWORKS CATEGORIES
Network can be grouped into three categories, namely;
A. By Scale
B. Topology
C. Functional Relationship
TYPES OF NETWORKS
As our world becomes increasingly interconnected, networks have become essential to our
daily lives. Networks are the lifeblood of our digital age, allowing us to communicate,
collaborate, and explore the vast depths of information at our fingertips. But did you know
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there are various types of networks, each with unique characteristics and purposes? From the
sprawling worldwide web to the intimate confines of your home, let’s embark on a journey to
uncover the diverse realm of network types.

There are many types of networks, including:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
5. Campus area network (CAN)
6. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
7. Storage Area Network (SAN)

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) connects devices within an individual’s immediate vicinity,
typically within a range of about 10 meters (33 feet). It enables communication and data
sharing between personal devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, smartwatches, and
other wearable devices.
TYPES OF PANS:
1. Wired PAN: A wired PAN involves connecting devices using cables or wires. This type
of PAN is less common than wireless PANs but can still be utilized in certain scenarios.
For example, a wired PAN may be established using USB cables to connect devices like
smartphones, tablets, and laptops to peripherals such as printers, keyboards, or
external storage devices. This direct physical connection allows for reliable and high-
speed data transfer.
2. Wireless PAN: Wireless PANs are more prevalent in everyday use. They utilize wireless
technologies to establish connections between devices without needing physical cables.
Bluetooth is the most common wireless technology used for PANs, which enables
devices within proximity to communicate and share data wirelessly. Bluetooth PANs
can be easily set up and offer flexibility and mobility, making them ideal for personal
device connectivity. Other wireless technologies, such as Zigbee and Wi-Fi Direct, can
also create PANs, depending on the specific requirements and devices involved.

USES OF PANS:
1. File Sharing: With PANs, users can easily transfer files between their smartphones,
tablets, and laptops without interruptions.
2. Peripheral Device Connectivity: PANs allow devices to connect wirelessly to
peripherals like printers, keyboards, and speakers.
3. Personal Device Synchronization: PANs facilitate the synchronization of data, such as
contacts, calendars, and media, between personal devices.
4. Audio Streaming: PANs enable wireless audio streaming to headphones, speakers, or
car audio systems.
5. Wearable Device Integration: PANs connect wearable devices like smartwatches,
fitness trackers, and health monitors to smartphones or tablets.
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EXAMPLES OF PANS:
1. Connecting a Bluetooth headset to a smartphone.
2. Syncing a smartwatch with a smartphone to receive notifications and track fitness data.
3. Transferring files between a laptop and a smartphone using Bluetooth.
4. Printing wirelessly from a tablet to a Bluetooth-enabled printer.
5. Connecting a mouse and wireless keyboard to a computer using Bluetooth.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A LAN, or Local Area Network, allows devices to connect within a specific geographic area,
such as a building, office, or home. This type of network is commonly used to facilitate
communication and data sharing between computers and other devices. LANs are widely used
to facilitate communication and resource sharing between connected devices.

TYPES OF LANS:
1. Token Ring LAN: Token Ring LANs use a token-passing protocol, where a special
“token” is circulated among devices on the network. When a device possesses the token,
it has the right to transmit data. Token Ring LANs ensure fair access to the network and
are characterized by a ring topology.
2. Token Bus LAN: Token Bus LANs also employ a token-passing mechanism, but instead
of a ring topology, they use a bus topology. Devices on the network contend for the
token to transmit data. Token Bus LANs were less commonly used than Token Ring
LANs.
3. Wireless LAN (WLAN): WLANs use wireless technology, such as Wi-Fi, to connect
devices without needing physical cables. They allow users to access the network and its
resources via wireless adapters or devices with built-in Wi-Fi capabilities. WLANs
provide flexibility, mobility, and ease of connectivity.
4. Wired LAN: Wired LANs utilize physical cables, such as Ethernet or fiber optic cables,
to connect devices within a limited area. They offer reliable and high-speed data
transfer rates. Wired LANs are commonly used in offices, homes, and data centers.
5. Cloud Managed LAN: Cloud Managed LANs leverage cloud-based management and
control to centrally administer and monitor the LAN infrastructure. Network
configuration, monitoring, and troubleshooting can be done through a web-based
interface, providing scalability, ease of management, and simplified network
deployment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANS:
1. Limited geographical area: LANs cover a small physical area, typically within a
building or campus.
2. High data transfer rates: LANs provide fast data transfer rates, allowing quick
communication and resource sharing.
3. Localized administration: LANs locally manage and administer network resources,
allowing control over them.
4. Shared infrastructure: LANs often use shared network infrastructure, such as
Ethernet switches and routers, to connect devices.

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PURPOSES OF LANS:
1. Facilitating communication: LANs enable users to communicate through email,
instant messaging, and shared applications, improving collaboration within an
organization.
2. Resource sharing: LANs allow multiple users to share resources like printers,
scanners, and storage devices, reducing costs and improving efficiency.
3. Centralized data storage and backup: LANs provide a centralized location for storing
and backing up important data, making it easily accessible and protected.
4. Access to shared applications and databases: LANs allow users to access shared
applications and databases, enabling streamlined workflow and access to critical
information.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a computer network that spans a metropolitan area or
a city. It connects multiple local area networks (LANs) and efficiently transmits data, voice, and
video between different locations within the metropolitan region.

EXAMPLES OF MAN:
1. Cable Television Network: Cable TV providers often leverage MANs to deliver
television signals and internet services to subscribers within a city or metropolitan
area.
2. Educational Institutions: Universities and colleges often establish MANs to
interconnect various departments, libraries, and research facilities.
3. Government Networks: Municipalities or government agencies may use MANs to
connect different government buildings, enabling efficient communication and data
sharing.
4. Large Corporations: Multinational companies or corporations with multiple branches
in a city can employ a MAN to connect their various offices and facilities.

TYPES OF MAN:
1. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI): FDDI is a type of MAN that uses fiber optic
cables to transmit data over a ring network topology.
2. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM): MANs use ATM as a high-speed networking
technology to efficiently transmit voice, data, and video.
3. Ethernet MAN (E-Man): E-Man utilizes Ethernet technology to connect multiple LANs
within a metropolitan area, providing a cost-effective solution for interconnecting local
networks.
4. Wireless MAN (WMAN): WMANs use wireless communication technologies like Wi-Fi
or WiMAX to establish a wireless network within a metropolitan area.
It’s important to note that the classification and availability of specific MAN types may vary as
network technologies evolve and improve over time.

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network spanning large geographical areas, such
as cities, countries, or continents. It connects multiple Local Area Networks (LANs) or other
WANs together, allowing for data, voice, and video transmission over long distances. Many
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organizations use WANs to connect their remote offices, branches, or data centers, enabling
communication and resource sharing.

EXAMPLES OF WAN:
1. Virtual Private Network (VPN): VPNs create secure tunnels over public networks,
such as the internet, to connect remote locations and enable secure communication and
resource sharing.
2. Internet-based WAN: Many organizations leverage the internet as a WAN
infrastructure, using technologies like IPsec, MPLS, or software-defined WAN (SD-
WAN) to connect their remote sites.
3. Leased Lines: Leased lines, such as T1/E1 or T3/E3 lines, provide dedicated point-to-
point connections between locations, ensuring reliable and secure data transmission.
4. Satellite Networks: In remote areas or regions with limited terrestrial infrastructure,
WANs can be established using satellite communication technology to connect sites
over long distances

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAN:
1. Large Geographic Coverage: WANs cover a significant geographic area, ranging from
regional, national, or international scopes.
2. Diverse Connectivity Technologies: WANs use various technologies, including leased
lines, fiber optics, satellite links, microwave connections, and internet-based networks,
to establish connectivity between different sites.
3. Reliance on Public or Private Infrastructure: WANs can utilize public networks, such
as the internet, or private leased lines to transmit data, depending on the organization’s
requirements and security considerations.
4. Network Protocols and Routing: WANs employ routing protocols, such as Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP), to efficiently direct data packets across multiple
interconnected networks and determine the best path.
5. Quality of Service (QoS): WANs often implement QoS mechanisms to prioritize certain
types of traffic, such as voice or video, to ensure optimal performance and minimize
latency for critical applications.

TYPES OF WAN-
 Packet switching:
Two main types of packet switching are used in wide area networks (WANs): circuit-switched
and packet-switched. Let’s explore both types:
1. Circuit-Switched WAN: In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated communication
path is established between two endpoints for the duration of the communication
session. This path remains dedicated to the specific session, even without data
transmission. Traditional telephone networks are an example of circuit-switched
networks. Circuit-switched networks provide guaranteed bandwidth but are less
efficient for data transmission than packet-switched networks.
2. Packet-Switched WAN: A packet-switched network divides data into packets and
transmits them independently. The packets can take different routes and reassemble at
the destination. Packet-switched networks are more efficient for data transmission as

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they allow multiple sessions to share the same network resources. The internet is an
example of a packet-switched network.
 TCP/IP protocol suite:
The TCP/IP protocol suite is the foundation for communication on the internet and many
private networks. It consists of two main protocols:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented
communication between devices. It ensures the delivery of data packets in order,
without errors, and incorporates flow control mechanisms to prevent congestion. TCP
breaks data into packets, reassembles them at the destination, and ensures error
recovery in the event of any lost packets.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP addresses and routes packets across networks. It establishes
the logical addressing scheme used for identifying devices on a network and enables the
routing of packets to their destinations. IP handles the fragmentation and reassembly of
packets and ensures their proper delivery.
 Packet over SONET/SDH (PoS):
Packet over SONET/SDH is a technology that allows for transmitting packet-switched data
over synchronous optical networks (SONET) or synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
networks. Standardized protocols for transmitting digital signals over optical fiber networks
include SONET and SDH. PoS encapsulates IP packets into SONET/SDH frames, efficiently
utilizing high-speed optical networks for IP-based data transmission.
 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS):
MPLS is a packet-forwarding technology in high-performance networks. It combines the
benefits of circuit-switching and packet-switching to route IP packets efficiently. MPLS uses
labels to identify paths through the network, allowing routers to make forwarding decisions
based on these labels rather than examining the entire packet’s IP header. This improves the
speed and efficiency of routing, enhances quality of service (QoS) features, and enables the
creation of virtual private networks (VPNs) and traffic engineering in complex networks.

CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)

A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a type of computer network that interconnects multiple
buildings or facilities within a limited geographic area, such as a university campus, corporate
campus, or military base. Its design aims to facilitate high-speed communication and data
sharing between different departments, offices, and resources within the campus.

EXAMPLES OF CAN:
 Educational Institutions: Universities and colleges often utilize CANs to interconnect
academic buildings, research centers, libraries, and administrative offices. It enables
seamless collaboration, access to shared resources, and efficient communication across
the campus.
 Corporate Campuses: Large organizations with multiple buildings or branch offices
close can establish a CAN for seamless internal communication, resource sharing, and
centralized IT management.
 Government or Military Facilities: Government agencies, military bases, and research
centers commonly use CANs to connect various facilities, command centers, and
administrative offices within the campus area.

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 Healthcare Campuses: Hospitals or medical complexes may deploy a CAN to connect

different departments, clinics, and healthcare facilities, allowing for streamlined
communication and secure sharing of patient data

CHARACTERISTICS OF CAN:
 Geographical Scope: CANs cover a limited geographic area, typically within a single
campus or a close grouping of buildings.
 High-Speed Connectivity: CANs provide high-speed data transmission capabilities,
allowing efficient communication and resource sharing.
 Wired and Wireless Infrastructure: CANs may incorporate wired and wireless
technologies to connect the buildings and facilitate network access for various devices.
 Scalability and Flexibility: CANs allow for easy expansion and adaptation to
accommodate the changing needs of the campus, making them scalable and flexible in
design.

VPN (VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK)

When a user connects to a VPN, it establishes a secure and private connection between their
device and the network they are accessing. This tunnel encrypts and protects data transmitted
between the user and the network, ensuring protection from potential threats. It encrypts the
data traffic passing through the tunnel, ensuring confidentiality and protecting it from
eavesdropping or unauthorized access.

THE PRIMARY PURPOSES OF A VPN ARE:

 Secure Remote Access: Allowing remote users to securely connect to a private
network from anywhere.
 Privacy and Anonymity: Concealing the user’s IP address and online activities from
potential surveillance or monitoring.
 Bypassing Geo-restrictions: Enabling access to geographically restricted content or
services by masking the user’s location.

TYPES OF VPN PROTOCOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES:

VPNs utilize various protocols and technologies to establish secure connections. Some
common types include:

 IPsec (Internet Protocol Security): IPsec provides a suite of protocols for securing IP
communication. It provides strong encryption and authentication and is usable in both
remote access and site-to-site VPN configurations.
 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): SSL and its successor
TLS are widely used protocols for securing web communication. Users often use
SSL/TLS VPNs for remote access to connect to web-based applications or services
securely.
 OpenVPN: OpenVPN is an open-source VPN protocol that uses SSL/TLS for encryption
and provides secure remote access. It is known for its flexibility and cross-platform
compatibility.

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 L2TP/IPsec (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol/IPsec): L2TP combines the best features of

PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) and Cisco’s L2F (Layer 2 Forwarding). It
commonly uses IPsec for secure remote access and provides strong encryption.
 PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol): PPTP is an older VPN protocol that offers
basic encryption and authentication. While widely supported, it is considered less
secure than other options.

STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)

A Storage Area Network (SAN) provides high-speed, block-level access to consolidated storage
resources through a specialized network infrastructure. SANs centralize storage and provide
efficient, scalable, and secure data storage and retrieval capabilities.

COMPONENTS AND ARCHITECTURE OF A SAN:

 Storage Devices: SANs include storage devices like disk arrays, tape libraries, or solid-
state drives (SSDs). The SAN fabric connects these devices and centrally manages them.
 SAN Fabric: The SAN fabric comprises switches, hubs, and routers that interconnect
storage devices and servers. SAN fabrics commonly use Fibre Channel (FC) or Ethernet-
based protocols like Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE).
 Host Bus Adapters (HBAs): Servers or computing systems in a SAN environment
require HBAs, which are specialized network interface cards (NICs). HBAs enable
servers to connect to the SAN fabric and access the shared storage resources.
 Storage Management Software: SANs employ storage management software for tasks
such as provisioning, volume management, data replication, and backup. These
software tools provide centralized control and monitoring of the SAN infrastructure.

Other types of network include:

1. Home Area Networks (HAN)
2. Enterprise Private Networks (EPN)
3. Internetworks
4. Backbone Networks (BBN)
5. Global Area Networks (GAN)
6. The Internet
Internet: The internet is a worldwide network of computers that share information
Internet Backbone A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM

UNDERSTANDING INTRANET AND EXTRANET

Private Networks for Internal Collaboration and External Collaboration:
1. Extranet:
 An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol, allowing
information sharing among authorized users. Individuals with valid login credentials
are the only ones granted access to the extranet. It operates as a lower level of
internetworking and falls into the category of a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN),

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Wide Area Network (WAN), or another type of computer network. Unlike a Local Area
Network (LAN), an extranet requires at least one connection to an external network.
 2. Intranet:
 An intranet is a private network that only an organization’s employees or members can
access. Its primary purpose is to facilitate information and resource sharing within the
organization. Intranets enable collaboration through group work and teleconferencing
features. They secure a platform for internal communication within the organization,
enhancing productivity and streamlining workflows.

Feature Intranet Extranet

Access Only accessible to employees Accessible to employees and authorized partners or

customers

Content Contains confidential Contains less confidential information

information

Security High-security Medium security

Management It Can be difficult to manage It Can be easier to manage than an intranet

Cost Implementing and maintaining Implementing and maintaining can be more cost-effective
can be costly. than an intranet.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Peer-to-peer: In this network, the computers connected together are called peers and each
handles its security. Peer-to-peer networks are designed to satisfy the networking needs of
home networks or of small companies that do not want to spend a lot of money on a dedicated
server but still want to have the capability to share information or devices.

Client/Server: Computers (clients) are connected to a server. The server takes responsibility
of storing clients’ data and managing other computers (clients) in the network.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
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Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
network. Network Topology can either be:
 Physical topologies describe how the cables are run.
 Logical topologies describe how the network messages travel

TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
BUS TOPOLOGY

In a bus topology, all the nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) on a bus topology
are connected by one single cable. A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a
terminator at each end. All nodes (file servers, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to
the linear cable. It is popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement.
2. Require less cable
3. It is best suited for small networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
2. This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes.

RING TOPOLOGY

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Ring topology is a network configuration where the connected devices create a circular path
for data to travel. In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction. A failure in
any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a
ring network we use the Token Ring technology. A token, or small data packet, is continuously
passed around the network. When a device needs to transmit, it reserves the token for the next
trip around and then attaches its data packet to it.
Advantage of Ring Topology
1. Bus topology is a very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit.
2. Easier to manage than a Bus Network
3. Good Communication over long distances
4. Handles high volume of traffic
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
2. The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire
network.

STAR TOPOLOGY

In a star network, each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is connected to a
central device called a hub. The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it

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along to all the other nodes in the network. Data on a star network passes through the hub,
switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator
manages and controls all functions of the network. The star topology reduces the chance of
network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Easy to manage
2. Easy to locate problems (cable/workstations)
3. Easier to expand than a bus or ring topology.
4. Easy to install and wire.
5. Easy to detect faults and remove parts.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
2. If the hub or concentrator fails, the nodes attached are disabled.
3. More expensive because of the cost of the concentrators.
TREE TOPOLOGY

A tree topology (hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged
in a hierarchy. It incorporates elements of both a bus topology and a star topology. The tree
topology arranges links and nodes into distinct hierarchies to allow greater control and easier
troubleshooting
Advantages of a Tree Topology
1. It allows point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2. It is supported by several hardware and software vendors.
3. All the computers have access to the larger and immediate networks.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

1. The overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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MESH TOPOLOGY

In this topology, each node is connected to every other node in the network. Implementing the
mesh topology is expensive and difficult. In this type of network, each node may send a
message to a destination through multiple paths. While the data is travelling on the Mesh
Network it is automatically configured to reach the destination by taking the shortest route
which means the least number of hops.
Advantage of Mesh Topology
1. No traffic problem as there are dedicated links.
2. It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used for data
communication.
3. Points-to-point links make fault identification easy.
Disadvantage of Mesh Topology
1. There is a mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage.
2. Installation is complex as each node is connected to every node.
3. The cabling cost is high.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

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Hybrid topology is a combination of any two or more network topologies. A hybrid topology
always accrues (results) when two different basic network topologies are connected. It is a
mixture of the above-mentioned topologies.
Advantages of a Hybrid Topology
1. It is extremely flexible.
2. It is very reliable.
Disadvantages of a Hybrid Topology
1. It is Expensive

NETWORK DEVICES
Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic devices so
that they can share files or resources. Some network devices are examined below:

HUBS
A hub is a device that joins multiple computers or other network devices to form a single
network. It can also be defined as a common connection point for devices in a network. A hub
does not read any of the data passing through them and is not aware of its source or
destination.
TYPES OF HUB:
I) ACTIVE HUB

 They can boost, relay, and clean the signals along with the network
 They don’t need power from the outside, as they have their own
 They serve each as a repeater and further as a wiring center.
 It helps to extend the maximum distance between them
II) PASSIVE HUB

 They collect wiring from the nodes.

 An active hub is the source of the power supply
 They do not help to extend the distance between nodes
III) INTELLIGENT HUB

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 They provide flexible data to the system devices

 Help the controller to compose each port in the Hub and look into the traffic passing
through the Hub
 They include remote management capabilities and work as an Active hub

SWITCHES
A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computer networks together
within a local area network. A switch generally contains more intelligence than a hub. Switches
are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and
destination device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately.

MODEM (MODULATOR-DEMODULATOR)
A modem is an electronic device that allows computers to communicate over telephone lines.

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ROUTER
Routers are devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so that
it can be connected to a network.
REPEATER

 A device that, on receiving the signals, amplifies it is called a repeater. In other words, it
can be said that a repeater is a device that, on receiving a signal, retransmits it at a
higher level so that the signal can cover longer distances.
 For Example, within a university field, the hostels may be isolated from most school
areas wherever the ISP line comes in. If the university authority desires to tug a wire
between the hostels and the main field, they’ll need to use repeaters if space is more;
thus, differing types of cables have limitations in terms of the distances they will carry
the information.
 When these network devices take a selected configured form on a network, their
configuration gets a chosen name, and this whole formation is termed Network
topology. Ensure circumstances, once we add some additional network devices to a
Network topology, it is known as Daisy chaining.

GATEWAY

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 It is a passage between the networks, connecting them so that this connection works
upon completely different networking protocols. They primarily work as the
middleman who takes information from a system, translates it, and then transfers it to
another system.
 They are also protocol converters that may be operated at different networking layers.
They are usually additionally complicated than switches and routers.

ACCESS POINT

While a wired or wireless link is technological in an AP, it usually means a wireless device. An
AP operates on the second OSI layer, the data link layer, and can either act as a bridge that
connects a standard wireless network to wireless devices or as a router that transmits data to
another access point. Wireless connectivity points (WAPs) are a device used to generate a
wireless LAN (WLAN) transmitter and receiver. Access points are usually separate networked
machines with an integrated antenna, transmitter, and adapter.
In order to provide a link between WLAN and wired Ethernet Lan, APs are using wireless
infrastructure network mode. They have several ports, which allow you to extend the network
to support other customers. One or more APs may need to have full coverage, depending on
the size of the network. APSAPs may also provide multiple ports that can be used to increase
the network’s size, firewall capabilities, and DHCP. So, we’re getting switch-based APs, DHCP
servers, firewalls, and routers.

BENEFITS OF NETWORKING

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• Information sharing- authorized users can access the computers on the network to share
information and data. May include special database, blogs, fax, FTP, internet telephony, IM,
chat rooms
• Hardware sharing – printer or scanner can be shared on a network.
• Software sharing – software can be installed on a server; all users can access the program on
the central location.
• Collaborative environment – shared environment enables users to work together on group
projects using capabilities of diverse equipment and software
 Connectivity and Communication
 Data Sharing
 Internet Access
 Internet Access Sharing
 Data Security and Management
 Performance Enhancement and Balancing
 Entertainment
DISADVANTAGES
• Vulnerability to unauthorized access- hackers can access and steal or delete data
• Malicious code - networked computers are more vulnerable to virus, worms, spyware than
stand-alone computer
• Network fault- problems to networking equipment can result in loss of data
• Setup and management cost - setting up a network requires investing in hardware and
software and maintenance of the network requires the care and attention of IT professional.
 Network Hardware, Software and Setup Costs
 Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs
 Undesirable Sharing
 Illegal or Undesirable Behavior
 Data Security Concerns

EVALUATION
1. Define networking and give three types of networkin?
2. Define computer network
3. What are networks used for?
4. List 6 types of network
5. List the types of network based on their main purpose.
6. List the types of network based on their size.
7. Define network topology
8. List 6 types of network topology
9. Define network devices
10. List 5 types of network device you know
11. What are the benefits of networking.

INTRODUCTION TO WWW
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MEANING OF WWW
WWW is an acronym that stands for World Wide Web.
Definition of WWW
i WWW is part of the internet that contains linked texts, images, sound, and video documents.
ii. It is also defined as an information space where documents and other web resources are
identified by URLs, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet.

BRIEF HISTORY OF WWW

In 1989, London-born Timothy Berners-Lee came up with the idea of the web as a way to
share files with others. The idea for the web came while Berners-Lee was working for the
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). Scientists by trade, Berners-Lee and
others inside CERN were looking for ways to transmit information to each other electronically.
To do so, they created a set of tools including a language (HTML), a browser and other utilities
which allowed them to establish communication. The first web browser was invented in 1990
by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus.
Many others were soon developed, with Marc Andreessen's 1993 Mosaic (later called
Netscape). Today, the major web browsers are Chrome, Safari, Internet Explorer, Firefox, and
Edge.

HISTORY OF INTERNET AND WWW IN NIGERIA

The internet was first introduced in Nigeria in the year 1995. It was in reality a project work by
RINAF (Regional Information Society Network for Africa). It was backed up financially by
UNESCO. Several workshops were organised to educate the Nigerian populace. The first test
running was conducted at Obafemi Awolowo University in 1995. By the late 1990's the
''internet '' became a known term among the citizens of Nigeria.

SOME NOTABLE APPLICATION USED TO ACCESS THE WORLD WIDE

 Firefox,
 Internet explorer,
 Google Chrome,
 Netscape navigator, etc.

SOME CONTRIBUTIONS OF NIGERIANS TO THE INTERNET

The advent of the World Wide Web has turned the world into a global village, thereby making
information and communications development universal. Nigerians have a share of their
contribution to the World Wide Web;
1. Seun Osewa: Seun Osewa is the founder of www.nairaland.com (Nigerians Web Forum). As
at 2011, it was tagged the Nigerian’s top ranked online community having about 650,000 user
accounts with about 30,000 users logging on in a month.

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2. Emeka Okoye: Emeka Okoye designed the first banking website in Nigeria with IBTC
Merchant bank, at the launch of Nigeria Equity Fund in December 1996.
He created the Internet banking application, which IBTC used for their online banking in 1997.
3. Iyinoluwa Aboyeji: Is a Nigerian living in Canada is developing a new web start up that
aims to revolutionise how people use the web to learn.
He is 19 years old and has been living and studying in Nigeria in the last 3 years. He founded
the Bookneto.

4. Others are Philip Emeagwali and Gilbert Chigozie (palchigo)

These contributions have made the World Wide Web more accessible, easier to navigate and
user-friendly. Therefore, Nigerians deserve accolades for these pioneering efforts in ICT.
1. According to some sources, Seun Osewa created Nairaland.com in response to a lack of
adequate online resources for Nigerians. He was motivated by a desire to foster community
and conversation among Nigerian internet users, as well as provide a platform for sharing
news, views, and information about the country.
2. Emeka Okoye’s work on Internet banking has had a significant impact on the Nigerian
economy, facilitating more efficient and convenient transactions for businesses and individuals
alike. Many other financial institutions have since adopted similar systems, helping to
modernize the country’s banking sector and drive economic growth.

3. Compared to other platforms for learning online, Iyinoluwa Aboyeji’s web start-up aims to
be more intuitive and user-friendly. It provides a personalized learning experience that adapts
to each individual user’s needs and preferences, incorporating tools like adaptive quizzing and
automated grading.
4. Philip Emeagwali is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modern computer science,
having played a key role in developing several important techniques and algorithms. His work
has had a significant impact on the development of the Internet, helping to facilitate
communication and collaboration around the world.
5. There is no doubt that Nigerians will continue to make significant contributions to the
Internet in the future. Some possible areas of focus include new web technologies and
platforms, improved security and privacy measures, and advances in artificial intelligence and
machine learning. Additionally, with the growing presence of African startups in the global
tech industry, there is potential for Nigerians to play a leading role in developing innovative
solutions that address local needs.
In conclusion, there is no doubt that Nigerians have contributed significantly to the Internet
and we can only expect more great things from them in the future.

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BASIC TERMINOLOGIES OF WWW

i. Websites: A collection of related web pages
ii. Webpage: A webpage is a document or information resource on the World Wide Web which
can be accessed using a web browser.
iii. Web servers: web servers are computers that store and disseminate web pages
iv. Web Browser: A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software
application for retrieving, presenting, and traversing (moving through) information resources
on the World Wide
v. Web address: A web address, also known as a URL (uniform resource locator), is an
Internet or intranet name that points to a location where a file, directory or website page is
hosted.
vi. Hyperlink: A link from a hypertext file or document to another location or file, typically
activated by clicking on a highlighted word or image on the screen.
vii. Homepage (Main page): The introductory page of a website, typically serving as a table of
contents for the site.
viii. Internet Protocol: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method by which data is sent from
one computer to another on the Internet or other network.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS
The two general protocols of WWW are:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for transferring files ( text, graphic
images sound, video and other multimedia files) on the world wide web.
2. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is a computer language used to build web pages.
Other protocols Include:
a) TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
b) UDP: User Datagram Protocol
c) SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
d) FTP: File Transfer Protocol
e) . POP: Post Office Protocol
f) ICMP: Internet Control Protocol

BENEFITS OF WWW
1. Availability of mainly free information
2. Facilitates rapid and interactive communication
3. It is accessible from anywhere
4. Facilitates the exchange of huge volumes of data

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SOFTWARE FOR WEBSITE DEVELOPMENT

These are software that can be used to build webpages. They include:
1. FrontPage: A computer program from Microsoft for windows and Mac for creating websites
and web pages.
2. Adobe Dream Weaver: An application used by web designers and developers to create
websites and applications for use across multiple targets
3. Web plus X4
4. Chrome DevTools
5. WordPress
6. Sublime Text 2.
7. Virtual Studio Code also known as VS Code
8. Notepad
NAVIGATING THROUGH WEBSITES
(PRACTICAL WORK)

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. List 3 Nigerians and their contributions to the www
2. Browse the internet and search for at least 3 other people who contributed to the advent of
the World Wide Web.
What inspired Seun Osewa to create Nairaland?com?
2. What impact has Emeka Okoye’s work on Internet banking had on the Nigerian economy?
3. How is Iyinoluwa Aboyeji’s new web start-up different from other platforms for learning
online?
4. How has Philip Emeagwali’s work in computer science influenced the development of the
Internet?
5. What other contributions do you think Nigerians might make to the Internet in the future,
and how might they achieve this?

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CABLES AND CONNECTORS

Network Cables
Network Cables are mediums through which information usually moves from one network to
another.
TYPES OF NETWORK CABLES
Network cables include the following types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
3. Coaxial Cable
4. Fibre Optic Cable
5. Telephone Cable
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
UTP is a popular type of cable that consists of two unshielded wires twisted around each other.
Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local-area networks (LANs) and
telephone connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth or as good protection
from interference as coaxial or fibre optic cables, but it is less expensive and easier to work
with.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cables
Shielded twisted pair is suitable for environments with electrical interferences; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its centre. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the centre conductor and the braided metal shield. The metal shield helps block any
outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors and other computers.
There are two types of coaxial cabling:
a. Thin coaxial cables (Thin net)
b. Thick coaxial cables (thick net)
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber Optic cable consists of a centre glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than an electronic signal eliminating the problem of
electrical interference.
Telephone Cable
Telephone systems use low-voltage electrical wires to convey signals to phones, modems and
fax machines.
Twisted pair cable:
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance,
electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between
neighbouring pairs. In balanced pair operation, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals
and the destination detects the difference between the two. This is known as differential mode
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transmission. Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by coupling of electric or magnetic
fields and tend to couple to both wires equally. The noise thus produces a common-mode
signal which is cancelled at the receiver when the difference signal is taken.
Straight-through cable:
Straight through cables are used to connect different devices like Switch to PC. Switch to
Router. Router to Switch etc. Straight-through cables are used when each end of the
communication transmits and receives on different pairs.
Cross over cable:
In a cross over the cable, the send and receive wires are “crossed over”, meaning the wires are
opposite on each end. This allows two PCs to talk to each other, has it connects the send of one
computer to the receiver of the other. Hence, the cross over cables are used to connect similar
devices like PC to PC, Router to Router, Switch to Switch, Hub to Hub etc.
Rollover cable:
Rollover cables are used to connect to the console port of the device. It gets the name rollover
because the pin outs on one end are reversed from the other as if the wire had been rolled over
and you were viewing it from the other side.
Transmission pins
Devices that transmit on 1,2 and receive on 3,6
1. PC
2. Router
3. Wireless Access Point AP
4. Networked printers
Devices that transmit on 3,6 and receive on 1,2
1. switch
2. bridge
3. hub
Guidelines for installing cable
When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
1. Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
2. Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have
problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
3. Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent lightboxes and other sources of electrical
interference.
4. If it is necessary to run the cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
5. Label both ends of each cable.
6. Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.
Evaluation
1. What is a network cable?
2. List the guidelines that must be observed when installing a network cable.
3. List some examples of network cables

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NETWORK CONNECTORS
An electrical connector is a conductive device for joining electrical circuits together.

Types of Network Connectors

1. Registered Jacks
2. Coaxial connectors
3. T-connectors
1. Register Jacks
The naming convention for Register jacks is RJ-xx, where xx is a two-digit number. The two
digits indicate the type of interface and the area of its application.

Examples of Register Jack Connectors

1. RJ 45 connector
This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the RJ
45 to be inserted only one way.
2. RJ 11 connector
The RJ 11 is the most common phone jack that is in use today. RJ 11 connectors are used to
terminate phone lines and are typically deployed with single-line POTS (plain Old Telephone
Service) telephone jacks.
2. Coaxial Cables Connector
The most common type of connector used with coaxial cable is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector.
3. T-connector
T-connectors are connectors for connecting three cables. It is usually in the shape of a capital
T.
COMPUTER CABLES
Computer cables include the following:
1. Power cable
2. Data cable
3. Printer cable
4. Monitor cable
5. Serial cable
6. Universal Serial Bus (USB) cable
Power Cable
A power cable or main cable is a cord that temporarily connects electrical appliances like the
computer to the distribution circuits of an electrical power source via a wall socket or
extension cord.
Data Cable
Data cables are used to transmit information between the system bus and peripheral devices.
Printer cable

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Printer cable is used to connect a parallel printer to the parallel port on a PC. A parallel port is
a type of interface found on computers for connecting various peripheral devices.
Monitor cable
A monitor cable or a VGA (Video Graphics Array) cable is a cable used to transmit video signals
Serial cable
A serial cable is a cable used to transfer information between two devices using a serial
communication protocol.
Universal Serial Bus Cable
This cable is used for connecting peripheral devices to a computer.

COMPUTER CONNECTORS
There are generally two types of connectors namely:
1. Male Connectors
2. Female Connectors

The gender of a connector is easy to determine. A male connector has one or more protrusions
that couple with a female receptacle. Good examples of male connectors are power plugs and
coaxial cables.
Virtually all of the receptacles (USB, RCA, and Ethernet connectors) on a computer are female.
The male has “pins” which stick out, while the female has holes or receptacles contacts. Note:
A Radio Corporation of America (RCA) connector is a type of electrical connector that is used
to carry audio/video (A/V) signals.

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DATABASE
DEFINITION OF DATABASE AND DBMS
Databas: Database is a collection of related data organized for rapid search and retrieval. It can
also be defined as a persistent, logically coherent collection of inherently meaningful data,
relevant to some aspects of the real world.
DBMS (Data Base Management System): DBMS is application software that controls the data in
the database, including overall organization, storage, retrieval, security and data integrity.
EXAMPLES OF DBMS PACKAGES
DBMS packages include the below:
1. DBase III
2. DBase IV
3. Foxbase
4. Oracle
5. Ingress
6. Paradox
7. MySql
8. Microsoft Access
9. PostgreSql
10. Microsoft SQL Server

ELEMENT/BASIC DATABASE TERMINOLOGIES

Field: A field is a specific item of information containing a homogenous set of values
throughout the table. Fields appear as columns in a table and as cells in a form.
Record: an individual listing of related information consisting of several related fields stored
in a table. A record is also called a row in the datasheet.
File: this is a collection of records, for example, a school database.
Primary Key: a field in a table whose value uniquely identifies each record in the table.
Fields that can serve as primary keys are:
1) Admission number
2) Matricultion number
3) BVN
4) Driving license number
5) phone number
6) Email address
7) Bank account number
8) Finger print
9) NIN, etc
Foreign keys: foreign key used to create relationships between tables.
Object: An object is a component of a database, such as a table, query, form, or report
a. Query: A query is a request for a particular collection of data in a database.

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b. Report: a formatted collection of information organized to provide printed data on a

specific subject.
c. Form: A form is a window or screen that contains numerous fields, or spaces to enter data
d. Table: In a database, a table is where all the data in the database is stored.

FORMS OF DATABASE ORGANIZATION

Different forms of database organization are:
1. Flat File
2. Hierarchical
3. Network
4. Relational

FLAT FILE DATABASE

A flat file database is a type of database that stores data in a single table. Example
of this database is a telephone directory book that shows the list of telephone
subscribers.

HIERARCHICAL
A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data is organized into a tree-like
structure. It can also be defined as a design that uses a one-to-many relationship for data
elements. The data is stored as records are connected through links. Hierarchical database
models link several disparate elements to one "owner," or "parent," primary record.

NETWORK DATABASE
A network database is a type of database model wherein multiple member records or files can
be linked to multiple owner files and vice versa. In the network model of a database, a record
can have multiple parents, making the system more flexible compared to the strict single
parents of the hierarchical database.

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RELATIONAL DATABASE
A relational database presents information in tables with rows and columns. Records are
arranged in rows while fields are arranged in columns. A relational database is the most
common type of database structure. It is used by most microcomputers. The various software
systems used to maintain relational databases are known as Relational Database Management
Systems (RDBMS).

FEATURES OF DATABASE FORMAT

i. Files are designed as table
ii. Tables comprise rows and columns
iii. Rows contain related information about a record
iv. Columns contain a specific type of information about fields.

STEPS IN CREATING DATABASE

i. Define the structure
ii. Indicate the field type (numeric character, data, text, etc)
iii. Enter data
iv. Save data

BASIC OPERATIONS ON ALREADY CREATED DATABASE

The following operations can be performed on an existing database
i. Searching
ii. Modifying
iii. Sorting
iv. Reporting
v. Selecting
vi. Inserting, etc

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INTRODUCTION TO CORELDRAW
Definition of Graphics Packages
A graphics package is an application that can be used to create and manipulate images on a
computer.
There are two main types of graphic packages:
1. Painting packages: A painting package produces images by changing the colour of pixels on
the screen.
Note: a pixel is the smallest unit of a digital image that can be displayed and represented on a
digital display device.
2. Drawing packages: A drawing package produces images that are made up of coloured lines
and shapes such as circles, squares and rectangles.
EXAMPLES OF GRAPHICS PACKAGES
Graphic packages include:
a. MS Paint
b. PC Paintbrush
c. Adobe Photoshop
d. JASC’s Paint Shop Pro
e. CorelDraw
f. Micrographic Designer
g. AutoCAD.
FEATURES OF CORELDRAW ENVIRONMENT
1. Title Bar: It is the first bar on the screen of any opened application. It gives information
about the program which you are working on and also the name used in saving the document.
2. Menu bar: Menu bar is the area containing pull-down menu options. CorelDraw as a
program has Eleven (11) menus, they include, File, Edit, View, Layout, Arrange, Effect, Bitmap,
Texts, Tools Window and Help menu. Each menu has its function. When clicked on, the sub-
menu list appears
3. Toolbar: A detachable bar that contains shortcuts to the menu and other commands
4. Property Bar: A detachable bar with commands that relate to the active tool or object. For
example, when the text tool is active, the text property bar displays commands that create and
edit text.
5. The Rule: The rule (horizontal and vertical rule) enables us to determine the size and
position of objects in a drawing
6. Drawing page: The area inside the drawing window. It is the printable area of your work
area. Any work done outside of the printable page will not be printed
7. Drawing window: The area outside the drawing page bordered by the scroll bars and
application controls
8. Colour Palette: a dockable that contains colour swatches.
9. Docker: A window containing available commands to settings relevant to a specific tool or
task
10. Toolbox: A floating bar with tools for creating, filling and modifying objects in the drawing
11. Status bar: An area at the bottom of the application window that contains information
about object properties. The status bar also shows the current mouse position
12. Document Navigator: The area at the bottom of the application window that contains
controls for moving between pages and adding pages.
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CORELDRAW TOOLBOX TOOLS AND THEIR USES

PICK TOOL
It contains the following tools
1. The Pick tool lets you select, size, skew, and rotate objects.
2. The Freehand pick tool lets you select objects by using a freehand selection marquee.
3. The Free Transform tool lets you transform an object by using the Free rotation, Free
angle reflection, Free scale, and Free skew tools.

SHAPE EDITS TOOLS

The shape edit tool contains the following tools:
1. The Shape tool lets you edit the shape of objects.
2. The Smooth tool lets you smooth curved objects to remove jagged edges and reduce the
number of nodes.
3. The Smear tool lets you shape an object by pulling extensions or making indents along
its outline.
4. The Twirl tool lets you create swirl effects by dragging along the edge of objects.
5. The Attract tool lets you shape objects by attracting nodes to the cursor.
6. The Repel tool lets you shape objects by pushing away nodes from the cursor.
7. The Smudge tool lets you distort a vector object by dragging along its outline.
8. The Roughen tool lets you distort the outline of a vector object by dragging along the
outline.
CROP TOOLS
It has the following tools
1. The Crop tool lets you remove unwanted areas in objects.
2. The Knife tool lets you slice objects, groups of objects, and bitmaps along any path you
specify.
3. The Virtual segment delete tool lets you delete portions of objects that are between
intersections.
4. The Eraser tool lets you remove areas of your drawing.

ZOOM TOOLS
The zoom tool contains:
The Zoom tool lets you change the magnification level in the drawing window.
The Pan tool lets you control which part of the drawing is visible in the drawing window.

CURVE TOOLS
It has:
a. The Freehand tool lets you draw single-line segments and curves.
b. The 2-point line tool lets you draw a straight two-point line segment.
c. The Bézier tool lets you draw curves one segment at a time.
d. The Pen tool lets you draw curves one segment at a time.
e. The B-spline tool lets you draw curved lines by setting control points that shape the curve
without breaking it into segments.
f. The Polyline tool lets you draw lines and curves in preview mode.

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g. The 3-point curve tool lets you draw a curve by defining the start, end, and centre points.
h. The Smart drawing tool converts your freehand strokes to basic shapes and smoothed
curves.
i. The LiveSketch tool lets you sketch naturally with intelligent stroke adjustment.

ARTISTIC MEDIA TOOL

The Artistic media tool provides access to the Preset, Brush, Sprayer, Calligraphic, and
Expression tools.
RECTANGLE TOOLS
It contains:
The Rectangle tool lets you draw rectangles and squares.
The 3-point rectangle tool lets you draw rectangles at an angle.

ELLIPSE TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Ellipse tool lets you draw ellipses and circles.
b. The 3-point ellipse tool lets you draw ellipses at an angle.

OBJECT TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Polygon tool lets you draw symmetrical polygons and stars.
b. The Star tool lets you draw perfect stars.
c. The Complex star tool lets you draw complex stars that have intersecting sides.
d. The Graph paper tool lets you draw a grid of lines similar to that on graph paper.
e. The Spiral tool lets you draw symmetrical and logarithmic spirals.
g. The basic shapes tool lets you choose from a full set of shapes, including a hexagram, a
smiley face, and a right-angle triangle.
h. The Arrow shapes tool lets you draw arrows of various shapes, directions, and numbers of
heads.
i. The Flowchart shapes tool lets you draw flowchart symbols.
j. The Banner shapes tool lets you draw ribbon objects and explosion shapes.
k. The Callout shapes tool lets you draw callouts and labels.

TEXT AND TABLE TOOLS

It contains:
a. The Text tool lets you type words directly on the screen as artistic or paragraph text.
b. The Table tool lets you draw and edit tables.

DIMENSION TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Parallel dimension tool lets you draw slanted dimension lines.
b. The Horizontal or vertical dimension tool lets you draw horizontal or vertical dimension
lines.
c. The Angular dimension tool lets you draw angular dimension lines.
d. The Segment dimension tool lets you display the distance between end nodes in single or
multiple segments.

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

e. The 3-point callout tool lets you draw a call out with a two-segment leader line.

CONNECTOR TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Straight-line connector tool lets you draw a straight connector line.
b. The Right-angle connector tool lets you draw a right angle connector line.
c. The Rounded right-angle connector tool lets you draw a right-angle connector line with
curved corners.
d. The Edit anchor tool lets you modify connector line anchor points.

INTERACTIVE TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Drop shadow tool lets you apply a drop shadow to an object.
b. The Contour tool lets you apply a contour to an object.
c. The Blend tool lets you blend two objects.
d. The Distort tool lets you apply a Push or Pull distortion, a Zipper distortion, or a Twister
distortion to an object.
e. The Envelope tool lets you shape an object by dragging the nodes of the envelope.
f. The Extrude tool lets you apply the illusion of depth to objects.

TRANSPARENCY TOOL
It contains:
The Transparency tool lets you apply transparencies to objects.

EYEDROPPER TOOLS
It contains:
a. The Color eyedropper tool lets you select and copy a colour from an object on the drawing
window or the desktop.
b. The Attributes eyedropper tool lets you select and copy object properties, such as line
thickness, size and effects, from an object on the drawing window.

INTERACTIVE FILL TOOLS

It contains:
a. The Interactive fill tool lets you apply various fills.
b. The Mesh fill tool lets you apply a mesh grid to an object.
c. The Smart fill tool lets you create objects from enclosed areas and then apply a fill to those
objects.

APPLICATION TO MAKE SIMPLE DESIGN

(PRACTICAL)

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

BASIC PROGRAMMING III

(ONE DIMENSIONAL ARRAY)
Definition of Array
An array is a list of variables of the same kind. A variable is a name the computer assigns value
to.

HOW TO CREATE AN ARRAY IN BASIC LANGUAGE

To create an array, the DIM (dimension) command is used.
The DIM statement has the following syntax for a one dimensional array:
DIM arrayName(n). Where "n" is a whole number.
For example DIM Score (5) will reserve 6 spaces, Score (0) Score (1), Score (2), Score (3), Score
(4) and Score (5) in the memory to hold Numeric values. While DIM NAME$ (10) will reserve
11 memory locations to store string values, that is, NAME$(0) ... NAME$(10). The number
inside the parentheses of the individual variables are called subscripts, and each variable is
called a subscripted variable or element.
The syntax for a two dimensional array is:
DIM arrayName(m,n). "m,n" are whole numbers.

OPERATIONS ON AN ARRAY
The following operation can be performed on an array. They are;
a. Input operation
b. Output operation
c. Arithmetic operation
Example 1: Create and access array of 10 integers
REM An array to create and access 10 integers
DIM IN (10)
IN (1) = 10
IN (2) = 11
IN (3) = 12
IN (4) = 13
IN (5) = 14
IN (6) = 15
IN (7) = 10
IN (8) = 11
IN (9) = 12
IN (10) = 13
PRINT IN (5)
PRINT “THE SUM OF IN (2) AND IN (7) IS”; IN (2) + IN (7)
END
[run]
OUTPUT: THE SUM OF IN (2) AND IN (7) IS 21

Example 2: Create an array to access your favourite the day of the week
REM Array to create and access your favourite the day of the week
DIM DAY$(7)
DAY$(1) = "Sunday"

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

DAY$(2) = "Monday"
DAY$(3) = "Tuesday"
DAY$(4) = "Wednesday"
DAY$(5) = "Thursday"
DAY$(6) = "Friday"
DAY$(7) = "Saturday"
INPUT "enter the number that corresponds to your favourite day of the week"; n
PRINT "My favourite day of the week is"; DAY$(n)
END

[run]

LOOPING
Looping is used to have the computer do repetitive tasks in a fraction of time.
The most common types of loops used in BASIC programming language are the FOR...NEXT and
WHILE WEND.

REVIEW OF FOR – NEXT STATEMENT

Example 1:
REM This program is to demonstrate the use of FOR-NEXT statement
FOR I = 1 TO 5
PRINT “the bluntest pen is better than the sharpest memory”
NEXT I
END

[run]
This program will display "the bluntest pen is better than the sharpest memory" five times

Example 2: Write a program to print the first ten integers.

Solution
REM program to print the first ten integers
FOR NUM = 1 TO 10
PRINT NUM
NEXT NUM
END

Example 3: Write a program to print

a. odd numbers from 1 to 20
b. even number from 2 to 30 using FOR –NEXT statement
Solution
REM program to print odd numbers from 1 to 20
PRINT “odd numbers from 1 to 20 are”
FOR ODD =1 TO 20 STEP 2
PRINT ODD
NEXT ODD
END

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

(b)
REM program to print even numbers from 2 to 30
PRINT “odd numbers from 2 to 30 are”
FOR EVEN =2 TO 30 STEP 2
PRINT EVEN
NEXT EVEN
END

Example 4: write a program to add odd numbers from 1 t0 20

Solution
REM program to print odd numbers from 1 to 20
PRINT "odd numbers from 1 to 20 are"
LET SUM = 0
FOR ODD = 1 TO 20 STEP 2
PRINT ODD
LET SUM = ODD + SUM
NEXT ODD
PRINT “The sum of odd numbers from 1 to 20 is"; SUM
END

Review of WHILE -WEND Statement

Example 1
REM program to demonstrate the use of WHILE – WEND statement
CLS
LET A= 1
WHILE A< 11
PRINT “Hello World”
A = A+1
WEND
END

Example 2:
Write a program to print the square of even numbers from 6 to 22 using WHILE – WEND
Statement

REM program to print the square of numbers

CLS
LET N = 6
WHILE N<23
PRINT “the square of”; N; “is”; N*N
N=N+2
WEND
END

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

More Examples using DIM, FOR-NEXT and WHILE – WEND statements

1. create and access an array of 10 integers using FOR – NEXT Statement
Solution
REM an array to create and access an array of 10 integers
CLS
DIM IN(10)
FOR I = 1 TO 10
INPUT "ENTER THE NUMBER"; IN(I)
NEXT I
PRINT "IN(3) is"; IN(3)
END

2. Calculate the average of one dimensional array with 100 numeric values.
REM an array to calculate the average of 100 numbers
CLS
DIM IN(100)
LET SUM = 0
FOR I = 1 TO 100
INPUT "enter the next number"; IN(I)
LET SUM = SUM + IN(I)
NEXT I
LET AVERAGE = SUM / 100
PRINT "average of 100 numbers is"; AVERAGE
END

3. Calculate the area of 10 different rectangles using the WHILE – WEND statement
REM Program to calculate the area of 10 different rectangles
CLS
DIM LENGTH(10)
DIM WID(10)
DIM AREA(10)
LET I = 1
WHILE I < 11
INPUT "enter the length of the rectangle"; LENGTH(I)
INPUT "enter the width of the rectangle"; WID(I)
LET AREA(I) = LENGTH(I) * WID(I)
PRINT "the area of the rectangle is"; AREA(I)
I=I+1
WEND
END

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES (HLLS)

Definition of Terms
1. Program: A computer program is a sequence of related instructions (commands) that tell
the computer how to accomplish a specific task. A program can also be defined as a set of
instructions that are executed by the CPU.
2. Programming: Programming is the act of writing computer program. Computer programs
are written by trained and qualified people called programmers.

3. Computer language: Computer language is a language used by, or associated with the
computer.

4. Computer Programming Language: A computer programming language is an artificial

language that can be used to control the behaviour of a machine, particularly a computer.
Programming language is a means through which a programmer communicates with the
computer in solving different categories of problems.

5. Syntax Syntax are set of rules governing how the words in the language are written.

6. Semantics These are the meaning associated with each word in a particular language.

Markup languages like HTML are computer languages but they cannot be classified as
programming languages.

7. High-Level Language: These are programming languages that allow for programs to be
written in forms that are readable to human beings. A high-level language is a programming
language that, in comparison to low-level programming languages, maybe more abstract,
easier to use, or more portable across platforms.

EXAMPLE OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

PASCAL
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
C ++
Java
FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
PROLOG(Logic Programing)
ALGOL (Algorithmic language)
APL (A Programming Language)
RPG (Report Program Generator)
Python

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

CLASSIFICATION OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE ACCORDING TO USE

a. Scientific: These languages are oriented towards computational procedures for solving
mathematical and statistical problems. Examples are BASIC, FORTRAN, AlGOL, and APL.
b. Business Data Processing: These languages emphasize their capabilities for maintaining
data processing procedures and file handling problems. Examples are COBOL and Prolog.
c. Object-Oriented Programming Language: In OOP, the computer program is divided into
objects. Examples: C++ and Java
d. General purpose: They are used for general-purpose programming. Examples are: C,
PASCAL and PL/I (Programming Language, Version I)
e. Special purpose programming language: This language had a specific purpose for which
they are developed. Examples: SNOBOL (String-Oriented Symbolic Language)
f. Visual programming language: These are designed for building window-based
applications. Examples are: Visual Basic, Visual Java and Visual C
g. Artificial intelligence: These programming languages are designed to mimic human
intelligence. Examples: Lisp (List processing) and Prolog (program Logic)
HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES ACCORDING TO THE MODE OF EXECUTION
a. Interpreted
Interpreted languages are read and executed directly with no compilation stage. E.g. BASIC,
ASP, Lisp and Logo
b. Compiled Language
Compiled languages are transformed into executable form before running. E.g. PASCAL,
COBOL, C, and FORTRAN
FEATURES OF SOME HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE FEATURES
FORTRAN 1. Ideal for scientific application
2. Uses mathematical notation
COBOL 1. Ideal for business application
2. English like

BASIC 1. Interactive
2. Easy to learn
3. Uses mathematical notation
Pascal 1. Scientifically oriented
2. Focuses on structured programming

C++ 1. Structured programming

2. General purpose programming
3. Procedural language

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE

1. User friendly
2. Easier to learn
3. They are easier to maintain
4. Machine independent
5. Requires less time to write
DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE
1. They are slow to execute as compared to machine language
2. They are not memory efficient

OVERVIEW OF NUMBER SYSTEM

Definition of Number System
A number system is a collection of symbols used to represent small numbers, together with a
system of rules for representing larger numbers.
There are various number systems, some are examined below:
DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
The decimal numeral system (also called base ten or occasionally denary) uses various
symbols (digits) for no more than ten distinct values (0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
The binary number system is a number system in base 2 and therefore requires only two
digits, 0 and 1.
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
The hexadecimal is base 16 digits. The digits 0 through 9 are used, along with the letters A
through F, which represent the decimal values 10 through 15.
Octal Number System
The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system and uses the digits 0 to
7

CONVERSION FROM ONE NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANOTHER

Binary Number Conversion
a. Conversion from Binary to Octal Number System
A binary-to-octal table conversion is needed to directly convert from binary to octal. The table
is given below.
Binary to Octal Table Conversion
Bin 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Oct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Next, group the binary digits into sets of threes starting with the least significant (rightmost)
digits. Then look up each group in the table above.

Example 1: convert 111001012 to octal number system.

Solution
Add leading zeros or remove leading zeros to group into sets of three binary digits.
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111001012 = 011 100 101

By looking up these values in the table above, 011 is 3, 100 is 4 and 101 is 5
Therefore 111001012 = 3458
Method 2
Using normal Mathematics method which involves converting 111001012 to decimal number
system and thereafter convert the result to an octal number system.

To convert 111001012 to decimal multiplying each digits by the base in an increasing power
starting with the least significant (rightmost) digit.
111001012
= 1x27+1x26+1x25+0x24+0x2 3+1x22+0x21+1x20
= 128+64+32+0+0+4+0+1
= 22910
Next convert 22910 to base eight by dividing 229 by 8 and writing down the remainder "R"

8 229 R
8 25 5
8 3 4
0 3

Pick “R” from bottom to top

Therefore, 111001012 = 3458
b. Binary to Hexadecimal
A binary to Hexadecimal table conversion is needed to directly convert from binary to Hex. The
table is given below.

Binary to Hexadecimal Table Conversion

Bin 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bin 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hex 8 9 A B C D E F
Next, group the binary digits into sets of four, starting with the least significant (rightmost)
digits.Then, look up each group in the table above.

Example: Convert 111001012 to hex

Solution
11100101 = 1110 0101
Looking at the table above 1110 is E and 0101 is 5
Therefore 111001012 = E516
C. BINARY TO DECIMAL
There are many methods of converting Binary to decimals. Let’s use the normal Mathematics
method which involves multiplying each digits by the base in an increasing power starting
with the least significant (rightmost) digit.
Example 1: Convert 111100000000 binary to decimal
Solution
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MR. HALIFAX
BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

111100000002
=(1×210)+(1×29)+(1×28)+(1×27)+(1×26)+(1×25)+(1×24)+(1×23)+(1×22)+(0×21)1+(0×20)
=1024+512+256+128+0+0+0+0+0+0+0
=1920
Therefore 111100000002 =192010

Example 2: Convert 101110011.11012 to decimal

Solution
101110011.11012=
=(1×28)+(0×27)+(1×26)+(1×25)+(1×24)+(0×23)+(0×22)+(1×21)1+(1×20)+(1×2-1)+(1×2-
2)+(0×2-3+(1×2-4)
=1×256+0×128+1×64+1×32+1×16+0×8+0×4+1×2+1×1+1×1/4+1×1/8+0×1/16+1×1/32
=256+0+64+32+16+0+0+2+1+1/4+1/8+0+1/32
=467+0.25+0.125+0+0.03125
=371.40625
therefore (101110011.1101)2 =(371.40625)10

DECIMAL NUMBER CONVERSION

a. Decimal to Binary
To convert from Decimal to binary, divide the given decimal number by 2 and write down the
remainder until the decimal number becomes zero
Example 1: convert 1792 decimal to binary
Solution

2 1920 R
2 960 0
2 480 0
2 240 0
2 120 0
2 60 0
2 30 0
2 15 0
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1
Picking the remainder from bottom to top, we have 11110000000
Therefore 192010 = 111100000002

Example 2: Convert 371.4062510 to binary

Solution
To solve this problem, divide 371 by 2 and put the remainder until it becomes zero

2 371 R
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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

2 185 1
2 46 1
2 23 0
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1
Picking the number from bottom to top we have 10111001
371 = 101110011.
Next is to work on the number after the decimal point.
Multiply the decimal number part by 2, write down the whole (W) number part and continue
to multiply the decimal result till it becomes 0 (zero)

2 W .40625
2 0 .8125
2 1 .625
2 1 .25
2 0 .5
1 .0
Picking "W" from top to bottom, we have 01101 which is the same as 1101
Merging the two results we have 101110011.1101
Therefore 371.4062510 = 101110011.11012

B. DECIMAL TO OCTAL
Example 1: Convert 179210 to base 8
Solution

8 1792 R
8 224 0
8 28 0
8 3 4
0 3
Therefore 179210 = 34008

C. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL
Example 1: Convert 1792 base 10 to hex
Solution

16 1792 R

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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

16 112 0
16 7 0
0 7
Therefore 179210 = 700hex
It is important to note that, converting from decimal to hexadecimal a table must be used to
obtain the hexadecimal digit if the remainder is greater than decimal 9.

Relationship between Decimal and Hexadecimal

Dec 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Example 2: Convert 4780610 to hex
Solution

16 47806 R Hex R
16 2987 14 E
16 186 11 B
16 11 10 A
0 11 B
Picking Hex "R" from bottom to top
4780610 = BABE16
Other fun hexadecimal numbers include AD, BE, FAD, FADE, ADD, BED, BEE, BEAD, DEAF, FEE,
ODD, BOD, DEAD, DEED, BABE, CAFE, FED, FEED, FACE, BAD

OCTAL NUMBER CONVERSION

a. Octal to Binary
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up
each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.
Octal to Binary Conversion Table

Bin 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Oct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Example 1: Convert 3458 to binary

Solution
From the conversion table
3 =011
4 = 100
5 = 101
Therefore 3458 = 0111001012 = 111001012

b. Octal to Hexadecimal
When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number
into binary and then from binary into hexadecimal.
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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

Example 1: Convert 3458 to hexadecimal

Solution
Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101
therefore 3458 = 0111001012 = 111001012
Binary 11100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up the groups in a table to convert them to hexadecimal digits.
Binary to Hexadecimal Table Conversion
Bin 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bin 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hex 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary = 1110 0101
Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5hex Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals
binary 011100101 equals hexadecimal E5.

Octal to Decimal
Example 1: Convert 3458 to decimal
Solution
Using the usual mathematics method of multiplying each digit by increasing power we have
345 octal = (3 x 82 ) + (4 x 8 1) + (5 x 8 0)
= (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1)
= 229 decimal
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER CONVERSION
a. Hexadecimal to Binary
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to hexadecimal.
Simply look up each hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.
Binary to Hexadecimal Table Conversion
Bin 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bin 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hex 8 9 A B C D E F
Example 1: convert A2DE16 to binary
From the conversion table above, we have that
A = 1010
2 = 0010
D = 1101
E = 1110
Putting the binary number together we have
A2DE16 = 10100010110111102
b. Hexadecimal to Octal
When converting from hexadecimal to octal, it is often easier to first convert the hexadecimal
number into binary and then from binary into octal.
Example 1: Convert A2DE16 to octal
Solution
Binary to Hexadecimal Table Conversion
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BOLDSTEPS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL SS THREE 2025 FIRST TERM COMPUTER LESSON NOTE.

Bin 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bin 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hex: 8 9 A B C D E F
From the above table
A = 1010
2 = 0010
D = 1101
E = 1110
Therefore A2DE16 = 10100010110111102
Next is to convert 10100010110111102 to Octal number system
Add leading zeros or remove leading zeros to group into sets of three binary digits.
10100010110111102 = 1 010 001 011 011 110 = 001 010 001 011 011 110
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary to Octal Table Conversion
Bin 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Oct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
001 = 1
010 = 2
001 = 1
011 = 3
011 = 3
110 = 6
It implies that 10100010110111102 = 121336 octal
Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, hexadecimal A2DE equals binary
1010001011011110 equals octal 121336.
c. Hexadecimal to Decimal
Converting hexadecimal to decimal can be performed in the conventional mathematical way,
by showing each digit place as an increasing power of 16. Of course, hexadecimal letter values
need to be converted to decimal values before performing the math.
Relationship between Decimal and Hexadecimal
Dec 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
i
Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Example 1:Convert A2DE hexadecimal to decimal
Solution
A2DEhex
= ((A) * 16 3) + (2 * 16 2) + ((D) * 16 1) + ((E) * 16 0)
= (10 * 16 3) + (2 * 16 2) + (13 * 16 1) + (14 * 16 0)
= (10 * 4096) + (2 * 256) + (13 * 16) + (14 * 1)
= 40960 + 512 + 208 + 14
= 41694 decimal
Therefore, A2DE16 = 4169410

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