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Social and Ecological Interactions in the Galapagos Islands

Mary-Ellen Tyler Editor

Sustainable
Energy Mix
in Fragile
Environments
Frameworks and Perspectives
Social and Ecological Interactions
in the Galapagos Islands

Series Editors
Stephen J. Walsh, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill,
NC, USA
Carlos F. Mena, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10427

Mary-Ellen Tyler
Editor

Sustainable Energy Mix

in Fragile Environments
Frameworks and Perspectives
Editor
Mary-Ellen Tyler
Faculty of Environmental Design
University of Calgary
Calgary, AB, Canada

ISSN 2195-1055     ISSN 2195-1063 (electronic)

Social and Ecological Interactions in the Galapagos Islands
ISBN 978-3-319-69397-2    ISBN 978-3-319-69399-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69399-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962297

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In Memory of Dr. Julie Rowney

Co-chair of the 2014 World Summit in the

Galapagos, Professor of Human Resources
and Organizational Dynamics, Haskayne
School of Business, University of Calgary.
Director of the Centre for International
Management, Director of the OLADE
Project for Latin American Energy, Director
of the Master of Science in Sustainable
Energy Development degree program
delivered jointly with the Universidad San
Francisco de Quito

“If I have seen further, it is by standing on

the shoulders of giants”-Isaac Newton, 1675
Foreword

Energy is generally thought of as an important economic commodity. However,

energy is much more than just an economic commodity. It is a fundamental life-­
support system just like air, water, and food. The connection between human wel-
fare and energy makes it a strategic geopolitical resource. Because energy is so
fundamental to human development, it has economic value. But just as importantly,
it has social and ecological value. Ecological systems and social systems are both
energy-dependent systems. Energy decision-making cannot be isolated from its
social and ecological context. Sustainable energy development means viewing
energy as a critical and integral part of social and ecological systems.
Sustainable energy mix means understanding energy sources in their social-­
ecological and geographic contexts. The term “social” is used here to include cul-
tural norms, traditions, values, religious beliefs, indigenous worldviews, economic,
institutional, political frameworks, demographics, and technology use. The term
“ecological” is used to include biological, geological, and climatic conditions, as
well as terrestrial ecosystem dynamics, aquatic or marine ecosystem dynamics,
landscape ecology, and plant and animal species and populations. Fragile environ-
ments include geographically isolated areas such as islands and remote areas with
extreme climatic conditions. This term also incorporates protected areas designated
for important cultural and heritage value and biodiversity. This includes national
parks and designated World Heritage sites. The Galapagos Islands represent a
microcosm of fragile environments all over the world that are experiencing increas-
ing energy demands from marine and land-based tourism, local community popula-
tion growth, resource development projects, and increasing demand for goods and
services. The challenge facing fragile environments is the risk of “trading off” eco-
logical and cultural heritage protection for increasing flows of economic goods and
services. Sustainable energy mix development in fragile environments offers an
alternative approach to this trade off dilemma. Effective sustainable energy mix

vii
viii Foreword

planning in the Galapagos and other fragile environments requires moving away
from conventional single-minded technical and economic thinking. The focus of
sustainable energy mix planning is finding social, ecological, technological, and
economic interrelationships that work in specific landscape and marine contexts.
The methodological challenge is how to “frame” complex human-ecological
interconnections operating across multiple spatial and temporal scales. A sustain-
able approach to energy development focuses on functional and structural social-­
ecological-­economic interconnections in specific contexts and at specific scales.
This approach is necessary to identify and support an energy mix strategy capable
of linking long-term ecosystem behavior with human activity systems. As such, it
offers an alternative to more conventional institutional thinking in which social,
ecological, and economic interests are prioritized and traded off against each
other.
In a “real-world” context of sustainability practice, practitioners and theorists
need to understand the importance of social-ecological systems as well as the meth-
odological and institutional options for their management. Stakeholder engagement
is a primary mechanism through which contextual answers to sustainable energy
mix design can emerge. This is an integrative, interdisciplinary, and transdisci-
plinary process involving practitioners, researchers, and stakeholders in the creation
of new knowledge and customized knowledge. This process of co-discovery is an
important social learning process characteristic of a sustainable energy mix in frag-
ile environments approach.
Too often, assumptions are made about problems and solutions with insuffi-
cient information or knowledge about the context in which such problems exist.
The 2014 World Summit focused on framing sustainable energy mix in a way that
would enable researchers and practitioners to have a common conversation about
the contextual issues, the driving forces, and what we know as well as what we
don’t know. The collection of papers in this volume address the “diagnose-
design-do-develop” research framework used to organize the 2014 World Summit
as illustrated below. Collectively, this volume represents a collaborative overview
of the multiple dimensions of sustainable energy mix in fragile environments.
This collection provides a curated body of research and practice experiences and
future directions for understanding the challenges and best practices involved in
planning, designing, and managing sustainable energy mix solutions for fragile
environments.
Foreword ix

I have had the privilege of working with colleagues at both the University of
Calgary and the Universidad San Francisco de Quito for several years in the deliv-
ery of a Master of Science in Sustainable Energy Development in both Calgary and
Ecuador. This has enabled me to see firsthand the parallels between development
pressures on fragile environments in Canada’s northern coastal marine zone and the
Galapagos. I believe the work represented in this book is important. The loss of the
cultural and biological diversity represented by fragile environments both north and
south is a loss to humanity and our common future. There is no substitution, and
once these places and cultures are gone, they are gone forever. We owe it to future
generations to show that we can work across disciplinary and geopolitical lines to
find sustainable social-ecological energy solutions.

University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Mary-Ellen Tyler

Series Foreword

In this latest contribution to Springer’s Galapagos Book Series, “Social and

Ecological Interactions in the Galapagos Islands,” Stephen J. Walsh and Carlos
F. Mena, Editors, Mary-Ellen Tyler, Guest Editor and Professor, Faculty of
Environmental Design, University of Calgary, Canada, has developed, with her col-
leagues, an interesting and timely book that examines several topics associated with
sustainable energy mix in fragile environments. Reported through a diverse set of
chapters written by a highly qualified group of authors, they invoke multiple frame-
works and perspectives to examine the challenges related to energy supply, energy
consumption, and energy policies that are highly germane to islands and other frag-
ile settings. The chapters also describe the impacts of energy mix on economic
development, environment, and communities, with implications for resident and
migrant populations who come to islands and other similarly fragile places, increas-
ingly, as tourists and/or as workers to support the burgeoning tourism industry.
The vision for the book emanated from a workshop held at the Galapagos Science
Center on San Cristobal Island, Galapagos Archipelago of Ecuador, a facility dedi-
cated to island research, education, and community outreach and achieved through
a collaborative partnership between the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
USA, and the Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador. With a focus on island
ecosystems and threats to their sustainability, the Galapagos Science Center hosted
the workshop participants and encouraged the ideas they expressed on energy mix,
ecological and social fragility, and island sustainability. With tours of the local com-
munities, assessment of local energy services, characterization of transport and off-­
loading facilities, understanding household demands for consumer products, and
the use of power generation technologies, the workshop participants observed how
and why the Galapagos Islands are considered a “natural laboratory,” but not only
relative to understanding the environment, but, so too, for understanding the social
factors that drive the expanding human dimension and the challenges to sustain-
ability of fragile and protected environments. With the Galapagos National Park
responsible for the management and protection of 97% of the land area of the archi-
pelago as well as the second largest marine reserve in the world, the world renowned
status of the Galapagos Islands heightens the importance of energy mix in the

xi
xii Series Foreword

islands and the potential for land and marine degradation through direct and indirect
consequences of the expanding human dimension related to energy and the genera-
tion and consumption of electrical power in fragile settings.
In the Galapagos Islands, long identified by the iconic species that live there,
most notably, giant tortoises, marine iguanas, and the Darwin finches, most of the
power consumed in the islands is provided through the use of generators that run on
diesel fuel imported from the Ecuadorian mainland, nearly 1000 km away.
Transported to the archipelago on cargo and fuel ships and linked to the expanding
consumptive demands of residents and tourists, an ever-increasing risk to the envi-
ronment is generated as a consequence of the number and size of supply ships that
are needed to support the needs of hotels, restaurants, residences, and commercial
enterprises with electricity as well as fuel for imported trucks, taxis, boats, and cars
that are part of the increasing human dimension throughout the four populated
islands. On San Cristobal Island, for instance, three large wind turbines contribute to
the power grid that supports the communities of El Progresso, located in the high-
lands, and the coastal community of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno as well as the island’s
airport that accommodates flights from the continent as well as flights between the
islands. Cargo and cruise ships, pleasure crafts, and smaller, commercial boats ferry
people and goods between islands using fuel imported from the mainland, but this
occurs not without their problems. Over several years, ships have grounded and
spills have occurred that highlight the concerns for energy transport and distribution,
best exemplified through the 2001 sinking of the Jessica and the ecological problems
that it generated throughout the Galapagos Marine Reserve. In addition to the use of
petroleum-based products in the Galapagos, photovoltaic solar panels are used to
locally generate a small amount of power at selected government and nongovern-
ment facilities, including the Galapagos Science Center; however, diesel generation
of power remains the primary way of supporting the electrical grid on San Cristobal
Island and throughout the populated islands of the Galapagos archipelago.
In short, this book addresses vital concerns germane to social and ecological
well-being of humans as well as plants and animals, both terrestrial and marine,
throughout the Galapagos Islands and in other geographic settings where fragile and
sensitive ecosystems occur. This book provides an important and supplementary
dimension to the Galapagos Book Series that highlights social-ecological pressures
on the islands as well as other fragile places, and offers insights into the sustain-
ability of energy mix in areas of increased visitation by migrant populations, includ-
ing national and international tourists and residents linked to both economic
development and resource conservation, in the case of the Galapagos, that occur in
and around protected areas.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Stephen J. Walsh
Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador Carlos F. Mena
Preface

Energy is a critical life-support system in both social systems and ecological sys-
tems. In remote and fragile environments such as islands and remote locations with
extreme climate conditions, access to sustainable energy is essential for the welfare
of local communities. Many fragile environments are experiencing increasing
resource development and tourism pressures. Appropriate energy sources and tech-
nologies are critical for maintaining environmental quality and quality of life in the
face of increasing energy demand. However, sustainable development issues arise in
geographic locations lacking or with limited access to conventional energy sources.
There is a critical link between affordable clean energy and sustainable develop-
ment. In remote and fragile environments, situational access to conventional and
unconventional energy sources offers an opportunity to create a sustainable mix of
energy sources and technologies customized to fit local social, cultural, environ-
mental, and economic circumstances.
As a designated United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture
(UNESCO) World Heritage Site, Marine Reserve and National Park, the Galapagos
Islands of Ecuador are one example of such a fragile environment found in a remote
offshore location with local communities and marine and terrestrial ecosystems of
historical and international significance. The need to manage growing land- and
water-based international eco-tourism pressures while striving to improve the qual-
ity of life for local communities and conserve the ancient and biologically signifi-
cant flora and fauna of the islands makes the Galapagos a microcosm of the
sustainable energy mix challenges facing remote and fragile cultural and biophysi-
cal environments worldwide.
The University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, and the Universidad San Francisco
de Quito, Ecuador, have worked together with the Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) and the Organizacion Latinoamericana de Energia
(OLADE) to successfully deliver a Master of Science in Sustainable Energy
Development degree program over a number of years. Given this partnership expe-
rience and the growing awareness of the importance of energy mix in achieving
sustainable socioeconomic development, representatives of the Sustainable Energy
Development program from both Calgary and Quito undertook the planning for a

xiii
xiv Preface

World Summit on the island of San Cristobal in the Galapagos to address the impor-
tance of sustainable energy mix in fragile environments. The Inter-American
Development Bank (IDB) Energy Innovation Center and Mount Royal University’s
Institute for Environmental Sustainability assisted in organizing this international
gathering of experts and providing financial sponsorship. Summit co-chairs, Dr.
Diego Quiroga of the Universidad San Francisco de Quito and the late Dr. Julie
Rowney of the University of Calgary, worked with the Summit Program Planning
Committee (Dr. Anil Mehrotra, Dr. Mary-Ellen Tyler, Allan Ingelson, and Dr. Irene
Herremans of the University of Calgary, Dr. Michael Quinn of Mount Royal
University, and Annette Hester of IDB) for over 2 years to make the Summit
happen.
Over 50 policymakers, business leaders, energy and economic development
practitioners, and researchers in social, environmental, and technological dimen-
sions of energy and sustainability were invited to participate in a working Summit
to examine the driving forces and critical factors affecting energy mix and socioeco-
nomic development in the context of environmental sustainability. Summit objec-
tives were to:
• Convene a group of international experts and practitioners with interdisciplinary
backgrounds and experience related to energy mix issues in fragile social-­
ecological environments.
• Identify relevant theories and best practice contributions to the Summit’s core
themes.
• Identify research priorities for designing and customizing energy mix in different
biogeoclimatic and cultural contexts.
• Use the Galapagos Islands venue as a “case study” of energy mix issues and pos-
sible solutions.
• Create a network of international practitioners and researchers to carry forward
Summit results for testing in a wide variety of locations and sectors.
The Summit was held in San Cristobal in the Galapagos from July 20 to 24,
2014. Small group workshops were organized around five key case study presenta-
tions which explored issues, knowledge and practice gaps, and possible cross-sector
approaches to dealing with sustainable energy mix in fragile environments. Five
themes emerged from the Summit workshops and provide direction for further
research and practice exploration:
• Need for new institutional frameworks
• Fossil fuel subsidy dependency
• Importance of social capacity
• Potential capacity of renewables
• Receptivity to technology transfer
This volume presents 11 invited papers that address different aspects of the
Summit’s 5 themes and sustainable energy mix design in the Galapagos and com-
parative contexts. The first paper provides a historical overview of the Galapagos
Islands with a focus on the evolving biocomplexity of the islands’ social and
Preface xv

e­ cological systems. Some significant events are identified that have affected system
feedbacks and interactions over time in the Galapagos as the islands have moved
from a relative state of isolation to daily flights of international tourists. Expanding
fishing industry pressures and growing social, economic, and technological inter-
connections with the mainland present a complex context for developing a sustain-
able energy mix. The second paper explores the driving forces affecting the need for
sustainable energy mix solutions, and the third paper provides two project examples
illustrating the importance in practice of social engagement and education. The
fourth paper examines the potential for biofuels and the use of biofuels in the
Galapagos, while the fifth paper looks at the legal and institutional issues related to
renewable energy mix development. The sixth paper illustrates the importance of
life cycle analysis in energy mix planning, and the seventh paper reviews renewable
energy development experiences and lessons learned in Ecuador’s Amazon region.
Papers eight and nine document two different approaches to waste management in
fragile environments. The tenth paper examines fragile cultural and marine environ-
ments in a northern latitude context with parallels to the Galapagos. The eleventh
and final paper lays out an approach to energy mix planning for fragile environ-
ments that can be adapted to different locations and institutional contexts.
Collectively, these chapters provide a comprehensive framework for understanding
the multidisciplinary dimensions of sustainable energy mix. Much of the content of
the papers included in this volume is based on professional practice and grounds the
discussion in the operational reality of what has and has not worked.
As guest editor, I first want to acknowledge the importance of the support and
assistance received from the series editors, Stephen Walsh and Carlos Mena, in
ensuring the completion of this work. I also want to acknowledge the tremendous
cooperation and commitment from the authors of the papers represented in this col-
lection. Irene Herremans deserves special thanks for her assistance in helping me at
critical times. I want to recognize the importance of the participants in the 2014
World Summit in the Galapagos. The contents of this volume represent their experi-
ence, wisdom, expertise, and professional and personal commitment to a sustain-
able energy and their contributions to Summit workshop discussions.
Finally, it may initially seem odd that a book focusing on energy would be
included in a series focusing on social and ecological interaction in the Galapagos
Islands. It is my hope, as guest editor, that the contents of this volume will convince
readers of the impact that energy mix decisions have on the well-being of future
social and ecological interactions in the Galapagos and in fragile environments all
over the world.

University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Mary-Ellen Tyler

Series Preface

Galapagos Book Series, “Social and Ecological Sustainability in

the Galapagos Islands”
When we developed the Galapagos Book Series and selected the initial book
topics to launch the series, we hoped that guest editors and authors would cooperate
to represent important and fascinating elements of the Galapagos Islands early in
the series. Science and Conservation in the Galapagos Islands: Frameworks &
Perspectives, Stephen J. Walsh & Carlos F. Mena, editors (2013), advocates an
interdisciplinary perspective for addressing many of the most compelling chal-
lenges facing the Galapagos Islands that extend across the social, terrestrial, and
marine subsystems. Evolution from the Galapagos: Two Centuries after Darwin,
Gabriel Trueba & Carlos Montufar, editors (2013), advances our understanding of
evolution, a key element of life and adaptation in the Galapagos Islands. The
Galapagos Marine Reserve: A Dynamic Social–Ecological System, Judith
Denkinger & Luis Vinueza, editors (2014), addresses the nature of the coupled
human–natural system in the Galapagos Islands and describes some of the key fac-
tors that affect social and ecological vulnerability, dynamics, and island sustainabil-
ity. Darwin, Darwinism and Conservation in the Galapagos Islands, Diego Quiroga
& Ana Sevilla, editors (2016), examines the meaning and essence of Darwin and
Darwinism in the Galapagos and beyond. His ideas shook the world of science and
continue to give meaning and explanations of life and the adaptive capacity of spe-
cies in the Galapagos and around the globe. Disease Ecology of Galapagos Birds,
Patricia Parker, editor (2017/2018), addresses the central elements of birds in the
Galapagos Islands associated with colonization, pathogens, hosts and parasites, and
evolution. And now, Sustainable Energy Mix in Fragile Environments: Frameworks
and Perspectives, Mary-Ellen Tyler, editor (2018), examines sustainable energy mix
economic development, communities, and fragile and sensitive environment.
Understanding Invasive Species in the Galapagos Islands: From the Molecular to
the Landscape, Maria de Lourdes Torres & Carlos Mena, editors (2018), examines
the introduction of alien species into the Galapagos Islands and the multiscale

xvii
xviii Series Preface

assessment of them through, for instance, DNA approaches as well as satellite

remote sensing to understand their establishment, ecology, spread, and eradiation.
It was not until Charles Darwin’s famous visit in 1835—which helped inspire the
theory of evolution by natural selection—that the Galapagos Archipelago began to
receive international recognition. In 1959, the Galapagos National Park was formed,
and in 1973, the archipelago was incorporated as the 22nd province of Ecuador.
UNESCO designated the Galapagos as a World Heritage Site in 1978, a designation
to honor the “magnificent and unique” natural features of the Galapagos and to
ensure their conservation for future generations. These islands were further deemed
a Biosphere Reserve in 1987, and the Galapagos Marine Reserve was created in
2001. The Marine Reserve was formed as a consequence of the 1998 passage of the
Special Law for Galapagos by the Ecuadorian government that was designed to
“protect and conserve the marine and terrestrial resources of the Islands.”
Development of the tourism industry has more than tripled the local population in
the past 15 years, thereby exerting considerable pressure on the Galapagos National
Park and the Marine Reserve. The residential population has grown from approxi-
mately 10,000 in 1990 to nearly 30,000 residents today, and national and interna-
tional tourism has increased from approximately 40,000 visitors in 1990 to now in
excess of 225,000. The impacts of the human dimension in the islands have been
both direct and indirect, with consequences for the social, terrestrial, and marine
subsystems in the Galapagos Islands and their linked effects. Further, the historical
exploitation of lobster and sea cucumber, globalization of marine products to a
national and international market, and the challenges imposed by industrial fishing
outside of the Reserve and illegal fishing and shark fining outside and inside the
Reserve combine to impact the social and ecological vulnerability of the Galapagos
Marine Reserve in fundamental ways. In addition, exogenous shocks, such as ENSO
events as a disturbance regime on Galapagos corals and marine populations, national
and international policies and institutions on regulation and management, and the
“pushes” and “pulls” of economic development and population migration, includ-
ing tourism, shape and reshape the Galapagos Islands—its resources, environments,
people, and trajectories of change.
Globalization is a process that affects island ecosystems and poses social-ecological
threats to their sustainability. This book explores important energy-related topics with
implications for the Galapagos and other fragile and sensitive island ecosystems around
the globe. It is a wonderful addition to the series and another topic that resonates within
and outside of the Galapagos Archipelago of Ecuador.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA Stephen J. Walsh
Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador Carlos F. Mena
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