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Studies in Space Policy

Annette Froehlich
Vincent Seffinga Editors

National
Space
Legislation
A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis
Studies in Space Policy

Volume 15

Edited by
The European Space Policy Institute
Director: Jean-Jacques Tortora

Editorial Advisory Board:

Genevieve Fioraso
Gerd Gruppe
Pavel Kabat
Sergio Marchisio
Dominique Tilmans
Ene Ergma
Ingolf Schädler
Gilles Maquet
Jaime Silva
Per Tegnér
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8167
Annette Froehlich • Vincent Seffinga
Editors

National Space Legislation

A Comparative and Evaluative Analysis
Editors
Annette Froehlich Vincent Seffinga
European Space Policy Institute European Space Policy Institute
Vienna, Austria Vienna, Austria

ISSN 1868-5307     ISSN 1868-5315 (electronic)

Studies in Space Policy
ISBN 978-3-319-70430-2    ISBN 978-3-319-70431-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70431-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930350

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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Contents

1 Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
1.1 The Setting��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
1.2 Approach of the Study��������������������������������������������������������������������   2
2 Rationale for the Enactment of National Space Legislation����������������    5
2.1 International Responsibility, Authorisation and Supervision����������   9
2.2 International Liability �������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
2.3 Jurisdiction, Control and Registration�������������������������������������������� 12
2.4 Interim Conclusion�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
3 National Space Legislation����������������������������������������������������������������������   15
3.1 Sweden: Act on Space Activities of 1982 ��������������������������������������  16
3.1.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
3.1.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 17
3.1.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 18
3.2 The UK: Outer Space Act of 1986��������������������������������������������������   21
3.2.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
3.2.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 23
3.2.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 24
3.3 Australia: Space Activities Act of 1998������������������������������������������   31
3.3.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
3.3.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 33
3.3.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 34
3.4 China: Interim Measures on Licencing of Civil Space
Objects of 2002 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47
3.4.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 47
3.4.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 48
3.4.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 50

v
vi Contents

3.5 Belgium: Act on the Activities of Launching, Flight

Operation or Guidance of Space Objects of 2005��������������������������  55
3.5.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
3.5.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 56
3.5.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 59
3.6 The Netherlands: Space Activities Act of 2007������������������������������   65
3.6.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
3.6.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 66
3.6.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 69
3.7 France: Act on Space Operations of 2008��������������������������������������   76
3.7.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
3.7.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 77
3.7.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 78
3.8 Austria: Outer Space Act of 2011 ��������������������������������������������������   86
3.8.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
3.8.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 87
3.8.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 88
3.9 Indonesia: Space Act of 2013 ��������������������������������������������������������   95
3.9.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
3.9.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 96
3.9.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 97
3.10 Denmark: Danish Outer Space Act of 2016������������������������������������ 103
3.10.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
3.10.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 103
3.10.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 105
3.11 New Zealand: Outer Space and High-Altitude Activities
Act of 2017 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 111
3.11.1 Rationale�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
3.11.2 Scope of the Legislation �������������������������������������������������� 112
3.11.3 Subject Matter of the Legislation ������������������������������������ 114
4 Alternative Law: Luxembourg’s National Space Law ������������������������ 125
4.1 Rationale ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
4.1.1 Genesis of the Luxembourg Law
on the Exploitation and Utilisation of Space
Resources������������������������������������������������������������������������� 127
4.1.2 Concerns of the Conseil d’État About
Legal Certainty ���������������������������������������������������������������� 128
4.2 Luxembourg’s Provisions on Space Resource Mining ������������������ 130
4.2.1 Appropriation of Space Resources ���������������������������������� 131
4.2.2 Authorisation for Commercial Operators
and Responsibility������������������������������������������������������������ 132
4.2.3 Risk Covering and Sanctions������������������������������������������� 134
Contents vii

5 Comparative Analysis of National Space Legislation �������������������������� 137

5.1 Scope of the Legislation������������������������������������������������������������������ 137
5.1.1 Territorial and Personal Scope ���������������������������������������� 138
5.1.2 Material Scope������������������������������������������������������������������ 142
5.1.3 Delimitation���������������������������������������������������������������������� 145
5.2 Subject Matter of the Legislation���������������������������������������������������� 146
5.2.1 Authorisation�������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
5.2.2 Insurance�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 158
5.2.3 Recourse and Liability����������������������������������������������������� 161
5.2.4 Registration���������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
5.2.5 Environmental Protection������������������������������������������������ 173
5.2.6 Enforcement �������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
5.2.7 Other Regulated Subjects ������������������������������������������������ 182
6 Final Considerations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187
About the Authors

Annette Froehlich is a scientific expert seconded from the German Aerospace

Center (DLR) to the European Space Policy Institute (Vienna) and Honorary
Adjunct Senior Lecturer at the University of Cape Town (SA) at SpaceLab. She
graduated in European and International Law at the University of Strasbourg
(France), followed by business-oriented postgraduate studies and her PhD at the
University of Vienna (Austria). Responsible for DLR and German representation to
the United Nations and International Organizations, Dr. Froehlich was also a mem-
ber/alternate head of delegation of the German delegation of UNCOPUOS. Moreover,
Dr. Annette Froehlich is author of a multitude of specialist publications and serves
as lecturer at various universities worldwide in space policy, law and society aspects.
Her main areas of scientific interest are European Space Policy, International and
Regional Space Law, Emerging Space Countries, Space Security and Space and
Culture. [email protected]; [email protected].

Alexander Gairiseb is on secondment from the Ministry of Works and Transport

to the Namibia Civil Aviation Authority as an Aviation Security Inspector:
Regulations. His primary responsibilities include the development of aviation secu-
rity regulations and policies, as well as reviewing stakeholders’ security pro-
grammes. He holds the degree of Bachelor of Laws (Honours) from the University
of Namibia. He is currently pursuing a Master of Philosophy in Space Studies
degree at the University of Cape Town’s SpaceLab, South Africa. He has published
several articles relating to space law; [email protected].

Ega Muhammad Megah is an LL.M. graduate from the International Institute of

Air and Space Law (IIASL) at Leiden University. He has a solid understanding of
law and policy in the aviation and space industry through his previous work experi-
ence at Garuda Indonesia (the national Indonesian airline) as a Network Management
Analyst and at the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN – Indonesian

ix
x About the Authors

Space Agency) as a Legal Research Assistant. His study at the IIASL has expanded
his legal and policy knowledge not only with respect to the Asia-Pacific region but
also the European region and international space affairs in general; muhammad.
[email protected].

Vincent Seffinga has a strong interest in legal issues and research in high-tech
industries, in particular with respect to outer space. He has recently graduated in a
Master’s degree of Law in Public International Law and a Master’s degree of Law
in International and European Tax Law at the University of Amsterdam. He has
developed his knowledge of space law and policy through his internship at the
European Space Policy Institute (Vienna), his participation in the ECSL Summer
Course as a student in 2016 (Warsaw) and as a tutor in 2017 (Rome), and his partici-
pation in the 2017 Manfred Lachs Moot Court Competition with the Leuphana
Universität Lüneburg team; [email protected].
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 The Setting

It is well documented that the exploration and use of outer space were at first pri-
marily conducted by states through their respective governmental space agencies or
international cooperative efforts.1 However, the utilisation of outer space quickly
privatised and commercialised, with private entities becoming an integral part of the
space sector.2 Considering that it is widely accepted that states are responsible for
space activities conducted by their national private entities, states have a clear incen-
tive to regulate such activities.3 This incentive is further reinforced because private
entities can conduct their space activities from the territory or under the jurisdiction
of any state, even those that do not possess the necessary infrastructure to launch
objects into outer space or that are not State Parties to the international instruments

1
Irmgard Marboe, ‘National Space Legislation’ in Christian Brünner & Alexander Soucek (eds),
Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (SpringerWienNewYork 2011), 439 | Frans von der
Dunk, ‘International Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk & Fabio Tronchetti (eds), Handbook of
Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015), 45 | Christophe Venet, ‘The Economic Dimension’ in
Christian Brünner & Alexander Soucek (eds), Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law
(SpringerWienNewYork 2011), 55
2
Irmgard Marboe & Setsuko Aoki, ‘Historical Background and Context’ in Stephan Hobe,
Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd, Kai-Uwe Schrogl (eds) & Peter Stubbe (assistant ed), Cologne
Commentary on Space Law, vol 3 (Carl Heymanns Verlag 2015), 494 | Christophe Venet, ‘The
Economic Dimension’ in Christian Brünner & Alexander Soucek (eds), Outer Space in Society,
Politics and Law (SpringerWienNewYork 2011), 55–56 | Julian Hermida, Legal Basis for a
National Space Legislation (Kluwer Academic Publishers 2004), xiii | Paul Dempsey, ‘National
Laws Governing Commercial Space Activities: Legislation, Regulation, & Enforcement’ (2016)
36 Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 1, 3
3
Mireille Couston, ‘France’ in Karl-Heinz Böckstiegel, Marietta Benkö & Stephan Hobe (eds),
Space Law: Basic Legal Documents, vol 5 (Eleven International Publishing 2011), 1–3 | Paul
Dempsey, ‘National Laws Governing Commercial Space Activities: Legislation, Regulation, &
Enforcement’ (2016) 36 Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business 1, 4

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

A. Froehlich, V. Seffinga (eds.), National Space Legislation,
Studies in Space Policy 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70431-9_1
2 1 Introduction

regulating outer space.4 Accordingly, an increasing number of states have enacted or

are in the process of enacting national space legislation to provide the necessary
regulatory framework for space activities conducted by private entities. For exam-
ple, Austria, Denmark and New Zealand have recently adopted national space leg-
islation.5 Moreover, the United Arab Emirates and Finland are in the process of
drafting and enacting national space legislation.6 In addition, there is strong interest
in the revision of existing national space legislation in the UK, the USA and
Australia.7 The interest in national space legislation, and the importance thereof to
regulating space activities conducted by private entities, thus gives a clear incentive
to conduct a comparative analysis of the national space legislation of various states.
The purpose of this report is to provide such a comparative analysis that will detail
the similarities and differences between the national space laws of selected states
with a focus on European comprehensive national space legislation. This report is
intended to assist the efforts of states that are seeking to enact or revise national
space legislation not only by presenting the approaches taken by other states but
also by presenting, as far as possible, the rationale behind their approaches.

1.2 Approach of the Study

The research consists of three parts. To frame the rest of the study, the first part will
discuss the rationale that motivates states to enact national space legislation. In this
respect, the connection between international space law and national space law will
be discussed. The focus will be on those international obligations that, in effect,
oblige states to enact national space legislation. In particular, Articles VI, VII and

4
Elisabeth Back Impallomeni, ‘Necessities for the Development of National Space Law’ in
Christian Brünner & Edith Walter (eds), Nationales Weltraumrecht/National Space Law (Böhlau
2008), 30
5
NPOC Space Law Austria, ‘Austrian Outer Space Act entered into force’ <https://www.spacelaw.
at/austrian-outer-space-act/> accessed 7 June 2017 | Michael Listner, ‘A Comprehensive First
Look at Denmark’s Domestic Space Law’ (The Space Review, 31 May 2016) <http://www.thespa-
cereview.com/article/2994/1> accessed 8 June 2017 | New Zealand Government, ‘Outer Space and
High-Altitude Activities Bill into Law’ (Scoop, 4 July 2017) <http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/
PA1707/S00052/outer-space-and-high-altitude-activities-bill-into-law.htm> accessed 5 July 2017
6
Lucy Barnard, ‘UAE to Finalise Space Laws Soon’ (The National, 7 March 2016) <http://www.
thenational.ae/business/aviation/uae-to-finalise-space-laws-soon> accessed 7 June 2017 | Ministry
of Economic Affairs and Employment, ‘National Space Legislation Prepared’ <http://tem.fi/en/
spacelaw> accessed 24 September 2017
7
Paul Rincon, ‘Queen’s Speech: Plan Aims to Secure Space Sector’ (BBC, 21 June 2017) <http://
www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40354695> accessed 23 June 2017 | Jeff Foust, ‘Cruz
Plans New NASA Authorization and Commercial Launch Bills’ (SpaceNews, 22 March 2017)
<http://spacenews.com/cruz-plans-new-nasa-authorization-and-commercial-launch-bills/>
accessed 7 June 2017 | Australian Government Department of Industry, Innovation and Science,
‘Reform of the Space Activities Act 1998’ <https://industry.gov.au/industry/IndustrySectors/
space/Pages/Review-of-the-Space-Activities-Act-1998.aspx> accessed 7 June 2017
1.2 Approach of the Study 3

VIII of the Outer Space Treaty,8 dealing with responsibility, liability and registra-
tion, as well as the Liability Convention9 and the Registration Convention10 will be
discussed. Although it is necessary to examine these international obligations to
provide a framework for the rest of the study, it would go beyond the scope of the
study to undertake an in-depth evaluative analysis. Rather, the chapter will discuss
the evident substance of these international obligations using authoritative second-
ary sources, mostly in the form of scholarly publications. Furthermore, the discus-
sion of the selected national space laws will in itself touch upon the interpretations
of the international obligations under Articles VI, VII and VIII of the Outer Space
Treaty because the choices made by states in their national space legislation often
depend on their interpretation of the aforementioned international obligations.
The second part will discuss, on a country-by-country basis, the national space
legislation of selected states. As such the report will discuss, in chronological order
from oldest to most recently enacted, the national space legislation of Sweden, the
UK, Australia, China, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Austria, Indonesia,
Denmark and New Zealand. Although the traditional spacefaring nations, the USA
and Russia, have national space legislation,11 they will not be included in this study.
This choice has been made primarily because the study intends to focus on the com-
prehensive national space legislation of European states and will use the national
space legislation of states in the Asia-Pacific region as a secondary perspective.
With respect to the USA, its national space legislation is not comprehensive but
rather sector-based, meaning issues are regulated by different acts or regulations.
Likewise, Russian space legislation is formed by a narrow general law that refers to
many laws, decrees and regulations for further regulation.12 The national space
­legislation of the USA and Russia thus does not fit the limitations of the study.
Second, the choice was also made to ensure that the scope of the study is not too

8
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,
including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (adopted 19 December 1966, entered into force 10
October 1967) 610 UNTS 205 [hereinafter: Outer Space Treaty]
9
Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (adopted 29
March 1972, entered into force 1 September 1972) 961 UNTS 187 [hereinafter: Liability
Convention]
10
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (adopted 12 November 1974,
entered into force 15 September 1976) 1023 UNTS 15 [hereinafter: Registration Convention]
11
With respect to the US and Russian laws see: Irmgard Marboe, ‘National Space Law’ in Frans
von der Dunk & Fabio Tronchetti (eds), Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015),
139–148 | Joanne Gabrynowicz, ‘One Half Century and Counting: The Evolution of U.S. National
Space Law and Three Long-Term Emerging Issues’ (2010) 4 Harvard Law and Policy Review 405
| Paul Dempsey, ‘Overview of the United States Space Policy and Law’ in Ram Jakhu (ed),
National Regulation of Space Activities (Springer 2010), 373–404 | Petra Vorwig, ‘Regulation of
Private Launch Services in the United States’ in Ram Jakhu (ed), National Regulation of Space
Activities (Springer 2010), 405–419 | Sergey Malkov & Catherine Doldirina, ‘Regulation of Space
Activities in the Russian Federation’ in Ram Jakhu (ed), National Regulation of Space Activities
(Springer 2010), 315–333
12
Irmgard Marboe, ‘National Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk & Fabio Tronchetti (eds),
Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015), 145
4 1 Introduction

extensive and vast. Although Norway was the first European state to enact national
space legislation through its Act on Launching Objects from Norwegian Territory,
etc. into Outer Space,13 it is very short and merely regulates the scope of the legisla-
tion and the authorisation of space activities. Therefore, the inclusion of Norway
would not fit the scope of the study, as it is not sufficiently comprehensive.
The analysis of each state will follow the same scheme. First, the analysis will
discuss the specific rationale motivating the state to enact national space legislation.
Thereafter, the scope of the legislation is discussed. Finally, the analysis will focus
on the subject matter of the legislation including, inter alia, authorisation, insurance,
recourse and liability, registration, environmental protection and enforcement. In
addition, the national space legislation of Luxembourg will be discussed to provide
an alternative approach towards national space legislation that addresses one par-
ticular activity rather than striving to provide a comprehensive regulatory frame-
work. The inclusion of the Luxembourg law follows from, and is necessitated by,
increased interest in space resource mining in recent years. The analysis in this part
will primarily be conducted through the examination of primary sources, i.e. the
acts, decrees and orders enacted by the states. Furthermore, the relevant explanatory
memoranda to these primary sources will be used to clarify the provisions and
explain the rationale behind the provisions. Scholarly publications will be consid-
ered as a subsidiary means of interpretation of the legislation if the primary sources
do not provide sufficient clarity.
Thereafter, based on the analyses, the study will conduct a comparative analysis
between the selected national space laws. This comparative analysis will ascertain
the common and diverging approaches taken towards regulating space activities
conducted by private entities, which will occur on a subject-by-subject basis. That
is, the subjects that have been identified in the analysis of the various national space
legislations will each be discussed and compared separately. For the most part, this
comparative analysis will draw on the separate analyses but will, if necessary, also
make use of secondary sources, such as articles, publications or commentaries. The
comparative analysis will discuss the choices made by states in their approaches to
national space legislation. It is not the purpose of this study to give specific recom-
mendations on the approaches that should be taken by states with respect to national
space legislation. However, the more ambiguous or problematic approaches taken in
national space legislation, which might create uncertainty about, or leave gaps in,
the adherence to international obligations, will be identified.

13
Act on Launching Objects from Norwegian Territory etc. into Outer Space, no. 38 from 13 June
1969 <http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/nationalspacelaw/norway/act_38_1969E.
html> accessed 1 November 2017
Chapter 2
Rationale for the Enactment of National
Space Legislation

The body of international space law consists first and foremost of the five UN Space
Treaties,1 which are, in addition to the aforementioned Outer Space Treaty,
Registration Convention and Liability Convention, the Rescue Agreement2 and the
Moon Agreement.3 Moreover, there are a number of nonlegally binding UN resolu-
tions and soft law efforts that elaborate or interpret the principles and obligations in
the five UN Space Treaties.4 The most relevant UN resolutions in relation to national
space legislation are the 2004 Resolution on the Application of the Concept of the
‘Launching State’,5 the 2007 Resolution on the Recommendations on Enhancing
the Practice of States and International Intergovernmental Organizations in
Registering Space Objects,6 the 2007 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space7 and the 2013 Resolution on

1
Frans von der Dunk, ‘International Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk & Fabio Tronchetti (eds),
Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015), 43 | Alexander Soucek, ‘International
Law’ in Christian Brünner & Alexander Soucek (eds), Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law
(SpringerWienNewYork 2011), 332
2
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects
Launched Into Outer Space (adopted 22 April 1968, entered into force 3 December 1968) 672
UNTS 119 [hereinafter: Rescue Agreement]
3
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (adopted
5 December 1979, entered into force 11 July 1984) 1363 UNTS 21 [hereinafter: Moon Agreement]
4
Frans von der Dunk, ‘International Space Law’ in Frans von der Dunk & Fabio Tronchetti (eds),
Handbook of Space Law (Edward Elgar Publishing 2015), 41–42 | Stephan Hobe, ‘Historical
Background’ in Stephan Hobe, Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd, Kai-Uwe Schrogl (eds) & Gérardine Goh
(assistant ed), Cologne Commentary on Space Law, vol 1 (Carl Heymanns Verlag 2009), 16–17
5
UNGA Application of the Concept of the “Launching State” (2004) UN Doc A/RES/59/115
[hereinafter: Resolution on the Concept of the “Launching State”]
6
UNGA Recommendations on Enhancing the Practice of States and International Intergovernmental
Organizations in Registering Space Objects (2007) UN Doc A/RES/62/101 [hereinafter: Resolution
on Enhancing Registration]
7
UNCOPUOS Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space (2007) UN Doc A/62/20, endorsed by UNGA International Cooperation in the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 5

A. Froehlich, V. Seffinga (eds.), National Space Legislation,
Studies in Space Policy 15, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70431-9_2
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