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 Improving
Educational
Gender Equality
In Religious
Societies
H u m a n R i g h t s a n d Mo d e r n i z a t i o n
P r e -Ara b S p r i n g

SUM A I A A . A L -KOHL A NI
Improving Educational Gender Equality in
Religious Societies
 Sumaia A. Al-Kohlani

Improving
Educational Gender
Equality in Religious
Societies
Human Rights and Modernization Pre-Arab Spring
Sumaia A. Al-Kohlani
United Arab Emirates University (UAEU)
Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

ISBN 978-3-319-70535-4    ISBN 978-3-319-70536-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70536-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962331

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © anthony asael / Alamy Stock Photo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
I dedicate this book to all Yemeni women, girls, and children, who bear most
of the consequences of political instability. I also dedicate it to Yemeni
teachers, who did not give up their duties even though they have not received
their salary for months.
 Preface

The idea for this book came to me in 2010, when Turkey was considered
a good example of a successful secular Muslim country. This positive per-
ception about Turkey made me wonder if females’ rights there are far bet-
ter than in Iran and Saudi Arabia when it comes to the basic right to
education and joining the labor force. When females’ rights in Iran are
compared to females’ rights in Turkey, the dress code stands out as the
most obvious difference. However, I tried to avoid the argument over the
dress code for women and girls, because forcing them to wear a hijab, as
is the case in Iran, or to remove it, as was the case in Turkey before 2010,
are, in my opinion, against females’ right to choose. What made this topic
more interesting was the Arab Spring in 2011 and the demand for sub-
stantial change in the political system in several countries.
The demand for a different political system comes from the failure of
several previous regimes to meet the economic and political demands of
the new generation. Some of those political movements demanded more
a religious political system, claiming that Islam is the solution, while oth-
ers were looking for a more liberal political system, arguing that the suc-
cess of Turkey was just an extension of its success in implementing a secular
political system. However, even today, several Muslim countries are still
embroiled in debates over whether a more religious or less religious politi-
cal system is better for the new, young governments that are struggling to
rise. Muslim countries that managed to avoid the Arab Spring, such as
Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Thailand, are also debating whether they should
liberalize their constitutions, laws, and regulations to avoid future political
chaos. Therefore, a key element in deciding which would be the more

vii
viii PREFACE

beneficial—a more religious or a less religious political system—is the

effect on gender equality, both for human rights and for economic devel-
opment reasons.
This book intends to respond to the “religious theory” that associates
certain religions with gender inequality, and to the “modernization the-
ory” that downplays the role of religion in gender inequity and associates
gender inequality with socioeconomic factors. This book tests both theo-
ries and determines which is more applicable, and how the results could
help policy-makers. It aims to answer several questions with regard to this
subject. For example, would the choice of a more religiously liberal con-
stitution mean better gender equality in education? Also, would the domi-
nance of a religiously conservative constitution result in weak gender
equality in education? Does modernization change the impact of a reli-
giously conservative constitution on gender equality in education?
This book contributes to the ongoing debate over what impact Islam
has on gender equality in education. It studies the impact of religious
constitutions and several modernization factors, such as urbanization, fer-
tility, oil, and income, on educational gender equality in 55 Muslim and
non-Muslim countries.
The book is an interdisciplinary study drawn from the fields of world
politics, public policy in education, and political religion. Combining
these disciplines also involves considerable engagement with the quantita-
tive and qualitative methods of comparative politics, religion, and educa-
tion. As such, this work exists in a unique space in the broader political,
religious, and educational literatures.
As I write, my hope is that this book will be useful complementary
reading for courses that discuss religion, politics, and education; Islam and
education; the impact of secularism and religious conservativism on edu-
cational gender equality; and differences in educational gender equality
between Muslim and non-Muslim countries. Also, due to the Arab Spring
and other events that raise the profile and importance of this topic, the
book could be of interest to the general public as well.

Al Ain, United Arab Emirates Sumaia A. Al-Kohlani

 Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who supported me during

the time I was writing this book. In particular, I would like to thank my
family and husband for taking a special interest in following my progress
and providing all the support and comfort I needed to finish the book.
Thanks to Professor Heather Campbell for her advice and encourage-
ment, and for all the support I have received from her since the day we
met. Also, I am thankful to Dr. Emily Saunders for her interest in the book
and her valuable suggestions. I am also thankful to the publisher and edi-
torial assistant, who were supportive, patient, and helpful. I ask for for-
giveness from my husband, from whom I was taken away during this
experience, and from those whose names I have failed to mention.

ix
 Contents

1 Introduction   1
Gender Equality Before the Arab Spring   8
Historical Background  10
Western Feminist Theories  12
Religious Feminist Theories  16
Education and Gender Equality  30
Female Education and Economy  32
Conclusion  34
Outline of the Book  35
References  38

2 Religious Theory vs. Modernization Theory  43

Religious Theory  43
Modernization Theory  54
Conclusion  60
References  63

3 Research Design and Methodology  67

Research Questions  71
First Hypotheses  71
Alternative Hypotheses  72
Data  73
Dependent Variable  73

xi
xii CONTENTS

Key Independent Variables  75

Control Variables  80
Interaction Variables  82
The Statistical Models  83
Expectations  84
Method  85
Conclusion  86
References  87

4 Empirical Testing and Analysis of Data  89

Empirical Testing and Analysis for Muslim and Non-­Muslim
Countries  90
Empirical Testing and Analysis for Muslim Countries 103
Empirical Testing and Analysis for Non-Muslim Countries 111
Analysis of the Results 114
Conclusion 119
References 122

5 Case Study 123
Turkey’s Religious History 125
Iran’s Religious History 129
Females’ Education and Labor Force Participation 134
Females’ Education in Turkey 135
Females’ Education in Iran 136
Data Description 138
Empirical Testing 138
Results for Education Enrollment 138
Results for Labor-Force Participation 144
Analysis of the Data 148
Conclusion 150
References 153

6 Conclusion and Policy Implications 155

Policy Recommendations 159
Future Studies 161
References 162
 CONTENTS
   xiii

Appendix A 163

Appendix B 173

Index 179
 List of Figures

Fig. 3.1 Comparison between the educational dataset in Barro and Lee’s
and World Bank datasets 75
Fig. 4.1 Marginal effect for the interactive terms between Muslim
countries and Constitution and Urbanization 101
Fig. 4.2 The marginal effect of the different levels of religious
constitutions in Muslim countries 109
Fig. 4.3 Total female-to-male school enrollment for Muslim and
non-Muslim countries (2010) 118
Fig. 4.4 Marginal effect for the interactive terms between Muslim
countries and Constitution, Urbanization, and Fertility rate 120
Fig. 5.1 Female-to-male total school enrollment in Iran and Turkey
(1960–2010)139
Fig. 5.2 Female-to-male educational school enrollment, 1960–2010 142
Fig. 5.3 Ratio of female-to-male labor-force participation (%), 1990–
2010145
Fig. 5.4 Labor force by level of educational attainment (distribution; by
sex and country) 146
Fig. A.1 Marginal effect of the different levels of religious constitutions
in non-­Muslim countries 167
Fig. A.2 Marginal effect of the different levels of religious constitutions
in Muslim and non-Muslim countries 168
Fig. A.3 Marginal effect of the different levels of religious constitutions
in Muslim and non-Muslim countries with fertility 170
Fig. B.1 Female-to-male total school enrollment for the first 16
countries over 50 years 173
Fig. B.2 Female-to-male total school enrollment for the second 16
countries over 50 years 174

xv
xvi LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. B.3 Female-to-male total school enrollment for 12 countries over

50 years 174
Fig. B.4 Female-to-male total school enrollment for the last 11 countries
over 50 years 175
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 The list of countries in my sample 69

Table 3.2 Constitution coding and the variables used for coding 76
Table 3.3 This study’s constitutional coding, with Fox’s variables 77
Table 3.4 The frequency of the constitutional religious levels per year
from 1960 to 2010 79
Table 3.5 Descriptive data for the main variables 82
Table 3.6 Variables and expected results 83
Table 4.1 Muslim/non-Muslim basic regression models 91
Table 4.2 Frequency for the levels of religious conservativeness 95
Table 4.3 Muslim/non-Muslim regression models with different
constitutional religious levels 98
Table 4.4 Muslim/non-Muslim regression models with interaction
terms99
Table 4.5 Only Muslim countries with the combined model and the
model with different levels of religious conservativeness 105
Table 4.6 Variables used in the models, but subsequently deleted 106
Table 4.7 Only non-Muslim countries with the combined model and the
model with different levels of conservativeness 113
Table 5.1 The differences between Iran and Turkey in different religious
aspects related to women’s rights 133
Table 5.2 Iran and Turkey regression models with religious and
modernization variables 141
Table A.1 Marginal effect for Muslim × Constitution 164
Table A.2 Marginal effect for Muslim × Urbanization 165
Table A.3 Interaction terms between the different levels of Muslim
conservativeness with Urbanization 165

xvii
xviii LIST OF TABLES

Table A.4 The interaction terms between the different levels of non-
Muslim conservativeness with urbanization 166
Table A.5 Muslim/non-Muslim basic regression models 168
Table A.6 Muslim/non-Muslim regression models with Muslim and
religiously conservative countries 169
Table A.7 Iran and Turkey regression models for the three educational
levels170
Table B.1 Detailed information on inclusion and exclusion of countries 175
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Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
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textbookfull.com