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 C
in a Nutshell
Second Edition
Peter Prinz and Tony Crawford
C in a Nutshell, Second Edition
by Peter Prinz and Tony Crawford
Copyright © 2016 Peter Prinz and Tony Crawford. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA
95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use.
Online editions are also available for most titles (http://safaribooksonline.com). For more
information, contact our corporate/institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or
[email protected].
Editors: Rachel Roumeliotis and
Katie Schooling

Production Editor: Kristen Brown

Copyeditor: Gillian McGarvey

Proofreader: Jasmine Kwityn

Indexer: Angela Howard

Interior Designer: David Futato

Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery

Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest

December 2005: First Edition

December 2015: Second Edition

Revision History for the Second Edition
2015-12-07: First Release

See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781491904756 for release details.

The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc. C in a Nutshell,
Second Edition, the cover image of a cow, and related trade dress are trademarks of
O’Reilly Media, Inc.
While the publisher and the authors have used good faith efforts to ensure that the
information and instructions contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and the
authors disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions, including without limitation
responsibility for damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this work. Use of the
information and instructions contained in this work is at your own risk. If any code
samples or other technology this work contains or describes is subject to open source
licenses or the intellectual property rights of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that
your use thereof complies with such licenses and/or rights.
978-1-491-90475-6
[M]
Preface

This book is a complete reference to the C programming language and the C runtime
library. As an “In a Nutshell” book, its purpose is to serve as a convenient, reliable
companion for C programmers in their day-to-day work. It describes all the elements of
the language and illustrates their use with numerous examples.
The present description of the C language is based on the 2011 international C standard,
ISO/IEC 9899:2011, widely known as C11. This standard supersedes the C99 standard,
ISO/IEC 9899:1999, and its Technical Corrigenda, TC1 of 2001, TC2 of 2004, and TC3 of
2007. The first international C standard, ISO/IEC 9899:1990, was published in 1990 and
supplemented in 1995 by Normative Addendum 1 (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995). The
1990 ISO/IEC standard corresponds to the ANSI standard X3.159, which was ratified in
late 1989 and is commonly called ANSI C or C89.
The new features of the 2011 C standard are not yet fully supported by all compilers and
standard library implementations. In this book, we have therefore labeled 2011 features —
such as multithreading, type-generic macros, and new standard library functions — with
the abbreviation C11. Extensions that were introduced by the C99 standard are labeled
with the abbreviation C99.
This book is not an introduction to programming in C. Although it covers the
fundamentals of the language, it is not organized or written as a tutorial. If you are new to
C, we assume that you have read at least one of the many introductory books, or that you
are familiar with a related language, such as Java or C++.
How This Book Is Organized
This book is divided into three parts. The first part describes the C language in the strict
sense of the term; the second part describes the standard library; and the third part
describes the process of compiling and testing programs with the popular tools in the
GNU software collection.
Part I
Part I, which deals with the C language, includes Chapters 1 through 15. After Chapter 1,
which describes the general concepts and elements of the language, each chapter is
devoted to a specific topic, such as types, statements, or pointers. Although the topics are
ordered so that the fundamental concepts for each new topic have been presented in an
earlier chapter — types, for example, are described before expressions and operators,
which come before statements, and so on — you may sometimes need to follow references
to later chapters to fill in related details. For example, some discussion of pointers and
arrays is necessary in Chapter 5 (which covers expressions and operators), even though
pointers and arrays are not described in full detail until Chapters 8 and 9.
Chapter 1, “Language Basics”
Describes the characteristics of the language and how C programs are structured and
compiled. This chapter introduces basic concepts such as the translation unit,
character sets, and identifiers.
Chapter 2, “Types”
Provides an overview of types in C and describes the basic types, the type void, and
enumerated types.
Chapter 3, “Literals”
Describes numeric constants, character constants, and string literals, including escape
sequences.
Chapter 4, “Type Conversions”
Describes implicit and explicit type conversions, including integer promotion and the
usual arithmetic conversions.
Chapter 5, “Expressions and Operators”
Describes the evaluation of expressions, all the operators, and their compatible
operands.
Chapter 6, “Statements”
Describes C statements such as blocks, loops, and jumps.
Chapter 7, “Functions”
Describes function definitions and function calls, including recursive and inline
functions.
Chapter 8, “Arrays”
Describes fixed-length and variable-length arrays, including strings, array
initialization, and multidimensional arrays.
Chapter 9, “Pointers”
Describes the definition and use of pointers to objects and functions.
Chapter 10, “Structures, Unions, and Bit-Fields”
Describes the organization of data in these user-defined derived types.
Chapter 11, “Declarations”
Describes the general syntax of a declaration, identifier linkage, and the storage
duration of objects.
Chapter 12, “Dynamic Memory Management”
Describes the standard library’s dynamic memory management functions, illustrating
their use in a sample implementation of a generalized binary tree.
Chapter 13, “Input and Output”
Describes the C concept of input and output, with an overview of the use of the
standard I/O library.
Chapter 14, “Multithreading”
Describes the use of the C11 multithreading features, including atomic operations,
communication between threads, and thread-specific storage.
Chapter 15, “Preprocessing Directives”
Describes the definition and use of macros, conditional compiling, and all the other
preprocessor directives and operators.
Part II
Part II, consisting of Chapters 16, 17, and 18, is devoted to the C standard library. It
provides an overview of standard headers and also contains a detailed function reference.
Chapter 16, “The Standard Headers”
Describes contents of the headers and their use. The headers contain all of the
standard library’s macros and type definitions.
Chapter 17, “Functions at a Glance”
Provides an overview of the standard library functions, organized by areas of
application (e.g., mathematical functions, date and time functions, etc.).
Chapter 18, “Standard Library Functions”
Describes each standard library function in detail, in alphabetical order, and contains
examples to illustrate the use of each function.
Part III
The third part of this book, which includes Chapters 19 through 20, provides the necessary
knowledge of the C programmer’s basic tools: the compiler, the make utility, and the
debugger. The tools described here are those in the GNU software collection. Finally, the
use of these tools in an integrated development environment (IDE) for C is described
using the Eclipse IDE as an example.
Chapter 19, “Compiling with GCC”
Describes the principal capabilities that the widely used compiler offers for C
programmers.
Chapter 20, “Using make to Build C Programs”
Describes how to use the make program to automate the compiling process for large
programs.
Chapter 21, “Debugging C Programs with GDB”
Describes how to run a program under the control of the GNU debugger and how to
analyze programs’ runtime behavior to find logical errors.
Chapter 22, “Using an IDE with C”
Describes the use of an integrated development environment (IDE) for unified,
convienient access to all the tools for developing C programs.
Further Reading
In addition to works mentioned at appropriate points in the text, there are a number of
resources for readers who want more technical detail than even this book can provide. The
international working group on C standardization has an official home page at
http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14, with links to the latest version of the C standard
and current projects of the working group.
For readers who are interested in not only the what and how of C, but also the why, the
WG14 site also offers links to some of its drafts and rationales. These documents describe
some of the motivations and constraints involved in the standardization process.
Furthermore, for those who may wonder how C “got to be that way” in the first place, the
originator of C, the late Dennis Ritchie, wrote an article titled “The Development of the C
Language”. This and other historical documents are still available on his Bell Labs
website, https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/index.html.
Readers who want details on floating-point math beyond the scope of C may wish to start
with David Goldberg’s thorough introduction, “What Every Computer Scientist Should
Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic,” currently available online at
http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html.
Conventions Used in This Book
The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Highlights new terms; indicates filenames, file extensions, URLs, directories, and
Unix utilities.
Constant width

Indicates all elements of C source code: keywords, operators, variables, functions,

macros, types, parameters, and literals. Also used for console commands and options,
and the output from such commands.
Constant width bold

Highlights the function or statement under discussion in code examples. In compiler,

make, and debugger sessions, this font indicates command input to be typed literally
by the user.
Constant width italic

Indicates parameters in function prototypes, or placeholders to be replaced with your

own values.
Plain text
Indicates keys such as Return, Tab, and Ctrl.
TIP
This element signifies a tip or suggestion.

NOTE
This element signifies a general note.

WARNING
This element indicates a warning or caution.
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