Tools in Archaeology
Archaeologists use many tools, some created for them, and others borrowed from other
fields.
Excavation
Common archaeological tools include shovels and trowels to loosen dirt, brooms and
brushes to sweep the loose dirt, buckets to carry the dirt, and sieves to screen it. In
addition to these usual tools, archaeologists utilize any object that can be used to
carefully move earth and uncover objects. For very fine and delicate excavations,
archaeologists use dental picks, brushes, spoons, and very fine blades. For larger scale
operations, archaeologists may use large earthmovers, such as bulldozers and backhoes,
but only to remove topsoil and overgrowth. The primary tool used by most archaeologists
is the flat mason’s trowel, with which they slowly scrape away the soil in horizontal
motions. Scooped gardening trowels have a tendency to dig holes, which the
archaeologist does not want to do. The goal is to work horizontally until all the finds in
an area have been exposed and their relationships noted.
Survey and Mapping
Imagery from satellites (photographic, infra-red, and radar), space shuttles, and airplanes
helps archaeologists identify surface features, while geophysical prospecting tools, such
as magnetometers, conductivity meters, and ground-penetrating radar, aid in locating
subsurface features.
Traditional survey tools used in finding and recording sites are taken from land survey.
Archaeological surveyors use compasses, tape measures, stadium rods, and various
other survey tools. Today, most archaeologists also employ electronic devices, such as
Total Stations and Global Positioning System (GPS) units, to help them map an area or
site. A Total Station is an instrument set on a tripod that shoots a signal at a target
placed on the feature to be mapped. The signal bounces off the target and returns to the
Total Station, which calculates the distance and angle of the object. This information is
stored in the instrument’s memory and can be downloaded to a computer with software
that generates a map. GPS technology uses satellite signals to record a feature or site’s
location. It is especially useful in surveying. This information can also be downloaded
and used to create a map.
Dating Method
Dating of remains is vital in archaeology, in order to place finds in correct relation to one
another and to find what was present in the experience of any human being at a given
time and place.1 Dating is the process of assigning to an object or an event a date in the
past, allowing such object or event to be located in a previously established chronology.
This generally requires a ‘dating method’. A number of dating methods are used by the
archaeologists to determine the antiquity of archaeological materials, organic remains
like plants and animals, and of archaeological sites. These dating techniques can be
broadly subdivided into two groups: Relative Dating and Absolute Dating.
a). Relative dating
Relative dating identify the order in which the sites or artefacts were used in a sequence
from earliest to latest. Under relative dating method a tentative date is achieved based
on archaeological stratigraphy, palaeography seriation, linguistic style, context, art and
architectural features. Archaeologists use relative dating techniques when the absolute
dates are not possible or feasible.
i. Typology
Typology involves putting a number of finds into chronological order. It is a method of
comparing reference objects with the purpose of classifying them according to their
similarity or dissimilarity and associating them to a specific context or period. This
technique is often used when it is not possible to make use of absolute dating methods. It
generally allows the archaeologists to identify the period to which a cultural site or
object belongs, without stating the date of occupation. This method is mainly applied
to projectile points and ceramic vessels. These present many characteristics that are
used for comparing them, such as morphology and raw materials in the case of stone
tools, and decorative techniques and motifs in the case of ceramics.
ii. Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy can be described as a ‘layer cake’ type arrangement of deposits called strata,
with the older layer beneath the latest. It is also known as the ‘Law of Superposition’.
It is the branch of the geology that deals with the study and interpretation of the
sedimentary stratified rocks, as well as of the identification, description, sequence,
both vertical and horizontal, cartography and correlation of the units stratified of
rocks. The artefacts that are discovered in successive undisturbed cultural layers can be
dated relatively on the basis of the principles of stratigraphy. The principle of
cultural/archaeological stratification is fundamental and it plays a dominant role in
archaeological investigations. Modern excavation techniques are based on stratigraphic
principles.
iii. Dendrochronology
Dating of wooden objects on the basis of tree rings or growth rings of a tree is called
dendrochronology. It is derived from the Greek word Dendron meaning ‘tree limb’
chronos mean ‘time’ and logy meaning ‘study’. It is a dating method that uses the
number, thickness and density of annual growth rings of ancient trees. This method
was first developed by the American scientist A.E. Douglas at the beginning of the
twentieth century. Dendrochronology actually dates when the tree dies or is felled.
Where wood has been reused, as often occurred with structural timbers in the past, this
method can overestimate the age of a structure. However, dendrochronology is also the
key method for calibrating radiocarbon dates and therefore is indirectly used in
dating a wide range of organic materials for up to 11,500 years.
b). Absolute dating (AD)
AD techniques attempts to establish an exact or approximate calendar date for a site or
artefact.
i. Archaeomagnetism
Archaeomagnetic dating is the study and interpretation of the signatures of the Earth’s
magnetic field in the past recorded in archaeological materials. Archaeomagnetic dating
is based on the established fact that the direction and intensity of the earth’s magnetic
field fluctuate over the years. Clay soils contain magnetic minerals and when the clay is
heated to a certain temperature, these minerals will assume the direction and a
proportional intensity of the magnetic field, which surrounds them. They will maintain
this direction and intensity after they are cooled. By measuring these qualities, the age of
the sample can be ascertained if the changes in the earth’s magnetic field at that location
are known.
ii. Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating
Potassium-Argon dating is also a radioactive method. Potassium (K) is one of the
elements that occur in great abundance in the earth’s crust. It is present in almost every
mineral, either as a principal constituent or as a trace element. In its natural form,
potassium contains 93.2% K-39, 6.8% K-41 and 0.00118% radioactive K-40. For each
100 K-40 atoms that decay, 89% become Calcium-40 and 11% become Argon-40, one of
the rare gases. As potassium in rock crystals decays it produces argon gas at a known
rate. Argon-40 is an inert or inactive gas, which by means of diffusion can easily escape
from its parent material under certain conditions.
