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Gold Metallurgy and the
Environment
Gold Metallurgy and the
Environment

By
Sadia Ilyas and Jae-chun Lee
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-55685-0 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ilyas, Sadia, editor. | Lee, Jae-Chun, editor.

Title: Gold metallurgy and the environment/[contributions by] Sadia Ilyas,
Jae-Chun Lee.
Description: Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017049455 | ISBN 9781138556850 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315150475 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Gold--Metallurgy. | Extraction (Chemistry)--Environmental
aspects.
Classification: LCC TN760 .G685 2018 | DDC 669/.9622--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049455

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Web site at

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This book is dedicated to my beloved parents whose footprints of grace

have kept me going further in life and continuously enlighten me.

Sadia Ilyas
Contents

Acknowledgement............................................................................................... xiii
Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Editors................................................................................................................... xvii

1. Gold Ore Processing and Environmental Impacts:

An Introduction......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Overview.................................................................................................1
1.2 A Historical Perspective........................................................................2
1.2.1 Mining........................................................................................2
1.2.2 Gold and Alchemy....................................................................3
1.3 Occurrence of Gold................................................................................4
1.4 Gold Mineralogy....................................................................................5
1.4.1 Mineral Processing of Gold-Bearing Ores............................7
1.4.1.1 Gravity Concentration..............................................7
1.4.1.2 Froth Floatation.........................................................9
1.5 Classification of Gold-Bearing Ores.................................................. 12
1.5.1 Free Milling............................................................................. 13
1.5.2 Complex Ores.......................................................................... 14
1.5.2.1  Cyanide Consuming Complex Ore...................... 14
1.5.2.2  Oxygen Consuming Complex Ore....................... 15
1.5.2.3  Preg-Robbing Ore.................................................... 16
1.5.3 Refractory Ores and Pretreatments...................................... 16
1.5.3.1 Roasting.................................................................... 17
1.5.3.2 Biological Pretreatment.......................................... 19
1.5.3.3 Pressure Oxidation Pretreatment......................... 19
1.6 Extraction Techniques of Gold Ores................................................. 21
1.6.1 Amalgamation......................................................................... 21
1.6.2 Chlorination.............................................................................22
1.6.3 Cyanidation.............................................................................22
1.7 Gold Metallurgy and Environmental Impact..................................22
References........................................................................................................ 24

2. Artisanal Gold Mining and Amalgamation............................................ 29

2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 29
2.2 Process of Gold Extraction by ASGM............................................... 29
2.3 Gold Amalgamation............................................................................30
2.3.1 Whole Ore Amalgamation Process...................................... 32
2.3.2 Amalgamation of a Concentrate........................................... 33
2.3.3 Decomposition of Amalgams............................................... 33
2.3.4 Cyanidation of Amalgam Tailings.......................................34

vii
viii Contents

2.4 Processing Centres of ASGM in Various Countries.......................34

2.5 Environmental Impact by ASGM Activities and
Associated Hazards............................................................................. 38
2.5.1 Associated Hazards of ASGM.............................................. 39
2.5.1.1 Chemical Hazards................................................... 39
2.5.1.2 Biological Hazards.................................................. 40
2.5.1.3 Physical Hazards..................................................... 40
2.5.1.4 Psychosocial Hazards............................................. 41
2.6 Trends in Sustainable Development of ASGM................................ 41
2.6.1 Technical Aspects...................................................................43
2.6.2 Policy and Legal Framework.................................................44
References........................................................................................................ 46

3. Cyanidation of Gold-Bearing Ores............................................................ 51

3.1 Development History of Gold Cyanidation..................................... 51
3.2 Cyanide Leaching of Gold.................................................................. 53
3.2.1 Various Theories of Gold-Cyanidation................................ 55
3.2.2 Factors Affecting the Cyanidation Process......................... 56
3.2.2.1 Effect of Cyanide Concentration........................... 57
3.2.2.2 Effects of the Eh-pH................................................ 58
3.2.2.3 Effect of Alkali Addition........................................ 59
3.2.2.4 Effect of Oxygen Concentration............................ 60
3.2.2.5 Effect of Particle Size.............................................. 62
3.2.2.6 Effect of Temperature............................................. 62
3.2.2.7 Effect of Agitation Speed.......................................63
3.2.2.8 Effect of Foreign Metal Impurities........................63
3.2.2.9 Effect of Film Formation onto Gold Surface.........67
3.2.2.10 Effect of Flotation Reagents on Cyanidation.........67
3.2.3 Intensive Cyanidation............................................................ 68
3.2.3.1 Gravity Concentration Technique......................... 69
3.2.3.2 Froth-Flotation Technique...................................... 70
3.2.4 Gold Recovery from Cyanide Pregnant/Leach Liquor..... 71
3.2.4.1 Zinc Cementation.................................................... 71
3.2.4.2 Carbon Adsorption................................................. 74
3.2.4.3 Resin Ion-Exchange.................................................77
3.2.4.4 Electrowinning of Gold from Cyanide
Solutions................................................................... 78
3.2.5 Toxicity of Cyanide................................................................. 81
3.2.5.1 Toxicity Standards for Cyanide Disposal............ 82
3.2.6 Methods of Cyanide Destruction/Removal........................83
3.2.6.1 Ion Exchange............................................................83
3.2.6.2 Electrowinning........................................................84
3.2.6.3 Hydrolysis Distillation........................................... 86
3.2.6.4 Membrane Treatment............................................. 87
3.2.6.5 Electro Dialysis........................................................ 87
Contents ix

3.2.6.6 Complexation Methods.......................................... 87

3.2.6.7 Alkali Chlorination.................................................90
3.2.6.8 Hypochlorite Oxidation of Cyanides................... 91
3.2.6.9 Hydrogen Peroxide Process................................... 92
3.2.6.10 Ozone Treatment of Cyanides............................... 93
3.2.6.11 INCO Process........................................................... 93
3.2.6.12 Photolytic Degradation........................................... 94
3.2.6.13 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis.............................. 95
References........................................................................................................ 96

4. Thiosulfate Leaching of Gold................................................................... 103

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 103
4.2 History of Gold-Thiosulfate Leaching............................................ 104
4.3 Influential Factors for Extracting Gold in a
Thiosulfate Solution........................................................................... 105
4.3.1 Effect of Ammonia................................................................ 107
4.3.2 Effect of Copper.................................................................... 107
4.3.3 Effect of Oxygen.................................................................... 108
4.4 Species Present in Thiosulfate Leach Liquors............................... 109
4.4.1 Metal Complexes................................................................... 109
4.4.2 Sulphur-Oxygen Anions...................................................... 112
4.5 Recovery of Gold from Thiosulfate Leach Liquors....................... 113
4.5.1 Precipitation........................................................................... 113
4.5.2 Carbon Adsorption............................................................... 114
4.5.3 Solvent Extraction................................................................. 114
4.5.4 Recovery of Gold Using Ion-Exchange Resins................. 114
4.6 Recyclability of Gold-Depleted Thiosulfate Solutions................. 119
4.7 Environmental Impact, Limitations, and Challenges for
Thiosulfate Leaching of Gold........................................................... 121
References...................................................................................................... 122

5. Thiourea Leaching of Gold....................................................................... 127

5.1 Development of Gold Leaching in Thiourea Solution.................. 127
5.2 Influential Factors for Extracting Gold in Thiourea Solution.........127
5.2.1 Effect of Oxidants/Ferric Ions............................................. 128
5.2.2 Effect of pH............................................................................ 130
5.2.3 Effect of Thiourea Concentration....................................... 130
5.2.4 Effect of Temperature........................................................... 131
5.2.5 Effect of Pretreatment.......................................................... 132
5.3 Recovery of Gold from Thiourea Leach Liquor............................. 133
5.3.1 Cementation........................................................................... 133
5.3.2 Adsorption onto Activated Carbon.................................... 134
5.3.3 Adsorption by Resin Ion-Exchange................................... 134
5.3.4 Electrowinning...................................................................... 135
5.4 Applications of Gold-Thiourea Leaching....................................... 136
x Contents

5.5 Environmental Impact, Limitations, and Challenges for

Gold-Thiourea Leaching................................................................... 137
References...................................................................................................... 137

6. Halide Leaching of Gold............................................................................ 141

6.1 Chemistry for Halide Leaching of Gold......................................... 141
6.2 Development History of Gold-Halide Leaching........................... 142
6.3 Chlorine Leaching............................................................................. 143
6.3.1 Effect of Acid Concentration............................................... 145
6.3.2 Effect of Temperature........................................................... 146
6.3.3 Effect of Initial Cl‾ Concentration...................................... 146
6.4 Bromine Leaching.............................................................................. 147
6.5 Iodine Leaching.................................................................................. 147
6.5.1 Effect of pH............................................................................ 149
6.5.2 Effect of Iodine Concentration............................................ 149
6.5.3 Effect of Oxidant................................................................... 150
6.6 Applications of Gold-Halide Leaching........................................... 150
6.7 Recovery of Gold from Halide Leach Liquors............................... 152
6.7.1 Carbon Adsorption............................................................... 152
6.7.2 Cementation........................................................................... 152
6.7.3 Solvent Extraction................................................................. 153
6.8 Environmental Impact, Limitations and Challenges for
Halide Leaching of Gold................................................................... 153
References...................................................................................................... 154

7. Microbial Cyanidation of Gold................................................................ 157

7.1 Microbial Role in Gold Metallurgy................................................. 157
7.2 Microbes-to-Metal Interactions........................................................ 158
7.3 Bio-Oxidation of Gold-Bearing Refractory Ores........................... 159
7.3.1 Microorganisms in Bio-Oxidation..................................... 160
7.4 Bio-Cyanidation and Cyanogenesis................................................ 165
7.4.1 Bio-Cyanidation by Chromobacterium violaceum................ 166
7.4.2 Bio-Cyanidation by Pseudomonas fluorescens..................... 166
7.4.3 The Metabolic Pathway........................................................ 166
7.5 Bioleaching of Gold in Microbial Produced Cyanide Solution........167
7.6 Bio-Recovery of Gold from Leach Liquors..................................... 168
7.7 The Microbial-Mediated Destruction of Cyanide......................... 173
7.7.1 Oxidative Pathway................................................................ 173
7.7.2 Reductive Pathway............................................................... 174
7.7.3 Hydrolytic Pathway.............................................................. 174
7.7.4 Substitution/Addition Pathway.......................................... 175
7.7.5 Factors Affecting Bio-Degradation Process...................... 176
7.7.5.1 Aerobic Process...................................................... 177
7.7.5.2 Anaerobic Process................................................. 177
Contents xi

7.8 Environmental Impact, Limitations, and Challenges for the

Microbial Activity in Gold Metallurgy........................................... 178
References...................................................................................................... 179

8. Human Perspectives on Gold Exploitation and Case Studies............ 185

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 185
8.2 Vitality of Human Perception on the Gold Industry.................... 185
8.3 Health Risks at Localities of Underground Mining..................... 187
8.4 Health Risks at Localities of Surface Mining................................. 188
8.5 Case Study on Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining.............. 190
8.5.1 Positive Effects....................................................................... 191
8.5.2 Negative Effects.................................................................... 192
8.5.3 Multi-Perspectives on Issues Pertaining to Mining......... 193
8.6 Case Study on Gold Cyanidation.................................................... 195
8.7 Case Study on Acid Mine Drainage from Gold Mining.............. 196
References...................................................................................................... 199

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Acknowledgement

It is a great privilege to express personal thanks to Dr. Rajiv Ranjan Srivastava,

whose enthusiasm has always provided positive encouragement. His gen-
erous, humane, and endless support have helped immensely to shape this
book in its form.

xiii
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