Freshlens IAS

Laser-Focus
Current Affairs Compilation
CSE (Main) 2025

General Studies- Paper Iii

Economy and Agriculture, Science and
Technology, Environment, Disaster
Management and Internal Security

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Laser-Focus for CSE Main-2025 FreshLensIAS General Studies-III

Laser-Focus General Studies- III

Economy and Agriculture, Science and Technology, Environment,
Disaster Management and Internal Security
Current Affairs Compilation for CSE (Main) 2025
1. Indian Economy and issues relating to Planning, Mobilization of Resources, Growth,
Development and Employment ....................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Planning better: On the NITI Aayog ...................................................................................... 5
1.2. India Becoming the 4th Largest Economy: Beyond the Big Economy Illusion ................ 6
1.3. Can India escape middle-income trap? ................................................................................. 8
1.4. Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment ................................................................. 9

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1.5. Unemployed Youth Are Still the Achilles Heel of India’s Buoyant Economy............... 10

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1.6. Zepto workers’ strike: In India’s gig economy, the continuing struggle for dignity .... 11
1.7. Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme ..................................................................... 13
2. Inclusive Growth and issues arising from it ........................................................................... 14

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2.1. Unprecedented Decline in Poverty and associated issues ................................................ 14
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2.2. Inequality slashes India’s human development score by nearly a third: UNDP report
........................................................................................................................................................... 16
3. Government Budgeting ............................................................................................................... 17
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3.1. Change of Fiscal Anchor in India: From Fiscal Deficit to Debt-GDP Ratio .................... 17
3.2. Highlights of the Budget 2025-26 ......................................................................................... 18
4. Major Crops - Cropping Patterns in various parts of the country, - Different Types of
Irrigation and Irrigation Systems; Storage, Transport and Marketing of Agricultural
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Produce and Issues and Related Constraints; E-technology in the aid of farmers .............. 21
4.1. What Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana aims to achieve, how PMDKY will
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be implemented .............................................................................................................................. 21
4.2. Government announces 6-year pulses mission to achieve self-sufficiency .................... 22
4.3. Government launches National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO-Oilseeds)23
4.4. Government announces National Mission on High Yielding Seeds in Budget 2025 .... 25
4.5. Govt bolsters Agri Stack with ₹6,000 crore allocation to empower farmers .................. 26
4.6. Cabinet approves irrigation scheme for ‘modernising’ water management ................. 27
5. Issues related to Direct and Indirect Farm Subsidies and Minimum Support Prices;
Public Distribution System - Objectives, Functioning, Limitations, Revamping; Issues of
Buffer Stocks and Food Security; Technology Missions; Economics of Animal-Rearing.. 29
5.1. MSP is not enough. Government should become key player in markets to relieve
farmer distress ................................................................................................................................ 29

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5.2. Reforming the Public Distribution System (PDS) in India ............................................... 30
6-7. Food Processing and Related Industries in India- Scope’ and Significance, Location,
Upstream and Downstream Requirements, Supply Chain Management; Land Reforms in
India ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
6-7.1. Why digitisation is not enough to reform land laws ...................................................... 32
8. Effects of Liberalization on the Economy, Changes in Industrial Policy and their Effects
on Industrial Growth ....................................................................................................................... 34
8.1. Manmohan Singh’s contribution to India economy — LPG Reforms ............................ 34
9-10. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc; Investment Models..... 37
9-10.1. India wants to embrace nuclear power. To do it, it’ll need a lot of time and money
........................................................................................................................................................... 37

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9-10.2. Role of BESS and Pumped Storage Hydropower in India's Renewable Energy Push
........................................................................................................................................................... 39

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9-10.3. Shaping the port of the future- Vizhinjam Port ............................................................ 40
9-10.4. Port Reforms in India – Towards Modern, Green, and Competitive Maritime
Infrastructure .................................................................................................................................. 41
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11. Science and Technology- Developments and their Applications and Effects in
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Everyday Life ..................................................................................................................................... 43
11.1. What is Elon Musk’s Starlink all about? ............................................................................ 43
11.2. Biosimilars and the need for a policy prescription .......................................................... 44
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11.3. Graphene – The Wonder Material Powering the Future ................................................ 46

11.4. Why scientists are installing underwater telescopes to detect ‘ghost particles ........... 47
12. Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology; Indigenization of Technology and
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Developing New Technology ......................................................................................................... 48

12.1. Why are Indian firms racing to build local AI? ................................................................ 48
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12.2. Jayant Vishnu Narlikar – His Contribution to Science .................................................... 50

12.3. India conducts maiden flight-trials of stratospheric airship platform in Madhya
Pradesh ............................................................................................................................................ 51
12.4. Centre’s new BioE3 policy: How can biotechnology be harnessed for economic
development? ................................................................................................................................. 52
12.5. DRDO's Hyderabad arm holds successful testing of scramjet engine for over 1,000
seconds ............................................................................................................................................ 53
12.6. DRDO, IIT-Delhi demonstrate free-space quantum secure communication over 1 km
........................................................................................................................................................... 55
12.7. On quantum technology, India has much to do. Global partnerships hold the key... 56
12.8. National Science Day: What is Raman Effect, what are some of its uses ..................... 58

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12.9. Why Genome India Project matters ................................................................................... 60
13. Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-
technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights ............................................... 61
13.1. A beginner’s guide to quantum computing ...................................................................... 61
13.2. Axiom-4 Mission: What Shubhanshu Shukla’s trip to ISS means for India’s space
program ........................................................................................................................................... 63
13.3. ISRO Docks SpaDeX Satellites in Space: What was done and how – and why does it
matter? ............................................................................................................................................. 64
13.4. Why China’s recent nuclear fusion breakthrough is significant .................................... 66
13.5. Ahmedabad Air India plane crash: How DNA identification works ........................... 67
13.6. Scientists find potential biosignatures in faraway exoplanet. What does this

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discovery mean for extraterrestrial life? ..................................................................................... 69

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13.7. What are neural networks and why are they significant? .............................................. 70
13.8. Gravitational waves: Listening to the heartbeat of space-time ...................................... 71
14. Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact
Assessment ......................................................................................................................................... 72
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14.1. What a new study found about the long-term impact of deep sea mining.................. 72
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14.2. All about the revised Green India Mission to increase forest cover, address climate
change .............................................................................................................................................. 73
14.3. What is the Supreme Court directive on sacred groves? ................................................ 75
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14.4. It’s official, nearly 84% of coral reefs are affected in the most widespread mass global
bleaching event ............................................................................................................................... 76
14.5. Green Credit Programme: What the scheme entails, criticisms against it .................... 77
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14.6. What is the International Big Cat Alliance, launched by India? .................................... 79
14.7. Air Pollution and the National Clean Air Program (NCAP).......................................... 80
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15. Disaster and Disaster Management ........................................................................................ 82

15.1. India’s escalating heat crisis: preparing our cities and protecting the vulnerable ...... 82
15.2. Quakes may well sharpen India’s seismic readiness ....................................................... 85
15.3. India recorded over 3.2 crore disaster displacements in a decade: IDMC ................... 87
15.4. Artificial Intelligence and Disaster Management ............................................................. 88
16. Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism .............................................. 89
16.1. Naxalmukt Bharat Abhiyan – India’s Decisive Battle Against Left Wing Extremism 89
17. Role of External State and Non-state Actors in creating challenges to Internal Security
............................................................................................................................................................... 92
17.1. Proliferation Financing (PF) – A Growing Threat to Global and Financial Security .. 92

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18. Challenges to Internal Security through Communication Networks, Role of Media
and Social Networking Sites in Internal Security Challenges, Basics of Cyber Security;
Money-Laundering and its prevention ......................................................................................... 93
18.1. The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity ......................................................... 94
19. Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas - Linkages of Organized
Crime with Terrorism....................................................................................................................... 95
19.1. How Operation Sindoor demonstrates capabilities of Made in India defence
technology ....................................................................................................................................... 95
19.2. How Air Defence Systems work ......................................................................................... 95
19.3. Operation Sindoor | How India’s air defence shield works: Inside the IACCS
command system ........................................................................................................................... 96

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19.4. How drones are the new face of warfare ........................................................................... 97
19.5. DRDO tests directed energy weapon system that can disable drones, missiles.......... 99

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19.6. Civil Defence in India ......................................................................................................... 100
20. Various Security Forces and Agencies and their Mandate ............................................... 102
20.1. Role of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in India’s Counter-Terrorism efforts
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......................................................................................................................................................... 102
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20.2. Integrated Theatre Commands ......................................................................................... 103
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Updates to this compilation in the form of Concept Notes will be shared on the Telegram
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1. Indian Economy and issues relating to Planning, Mobilization of
Resources, Growth, Development and Employment
1.1. Planning better: On the NITI Aayog
Context: NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India), formed in 2015 to replace
the Planning Commission, was envisaged as a policy think tank to foster cooperative
federalism and catalyze development through strategic and evidence-based planning.
However, recent boycotts by multiple
opposition-ruled States during Governing
Council meetings have highlighted deep-rooted
tensions, raising questions about its efficacy and
inclusivity.

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Comparison of Planning Commission and

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NITI Aayog:

Feature Planning Commission NITI Aayog

Year Established 1950 2015

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Constitutional Non-constitutional, but Non-constitutional, advisory
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Backing centralised and influential

Core Function Central planning and fund Policy advisory and monitoring
allocation
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Federal Approach Top-down Intended cooperative, evolved

into competitive
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Critical Evaluation of Planning by NITI Aayog:

Sl. Achievements Challenges/Issues

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No.
1 Promoted performance-based No Mechanism for Integrated Resource
competitive federalism via indices Planning
(SDG Index, Health Index etc
2 Focus on evidence-based policy- No Influence Over Budgetary
making and real-time data monitoring Prioritization
(Aspirational Districts Programme)
3 Encouraged long-term strategic Indices without Strategic Feedback Loops
planning through initiatives like (NITI Aayog does not effectively translate
Vision@2047 the Indices into planning reforms )

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Reforms and the Way Forward:

Structural Reforms Functional Reforms Political and Institutional

Reforms
Statutory Empowerment Dedicated Grant Advisory Governing Council must
of NITI Aayog for greater Wing to bridge Finance be genuinely consultative,
authority and legitimacy Ministry and States on not ceremonial
planning-related
expenditure
Reintroduce Consultative Medium-term Third-party Evaluation of
Fund Allocation development strategies at NITI's performance every
Mechanisms with States sectoral levels 3-5 years
and UTs

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Regional Development Strengthen Data Foster a balanced model
Boards within NITI to Federalism by enabling of competitive +

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tailor strategies for States to collect, analyse, cooperative federalism
backward States and use data with central
support

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#Conclusion: To realize true cooperative federalism, India needs to reimagine NITI Aayog
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not as a symbolic think tank but as an institutional bridge—combining strategic vision,
fiscal consultation, and empowered intergovernmental dialogue.

1.2. India Becoming the 4th Largest Economy: Beyond the Big Economy
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Illusion
Context: As per IMF’s 2024-25 projections,
India is set to become the 4th largest economy
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in the world in 2025 (nominal GDP),

surpassing Japan, with a GDP of $4.18 trillion.
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By 2028, it is expected to be the 3rd largest. This

has been celebrated in political and media
narratives as a symbol of India's rise, economic
resilience, and future potential.

Understanding GDP Rankings and Methodologies

Method What it Measures India’s

Rank

Nominal GDP (Market Size of economy in USD based on market- 4th (2025)
Exchange Rate) determined exchange rates

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GDP at PPP (Purchasing GDP adjusted for price differences across 3rd (since
Power Parity) countries 2009)

1. Nominal GDP is influenced by exchange rate volatility.

2. PPP GDP reflects the domestic purchasing power and is more meaningful for
comparing living standards and internal capacity

Achievements

1. India’s structural transformation, post-1991 reforms, and stable macroeconomic

environment have led to sustained GDP growth.
2. Expanding digital infrastructure, rising manufacturing potential, and a young
workforce have bolstered nominal economic size.

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3. Resilience post-COVID and strong FDI inflows have supported economic
momentum.

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The Caveats (Big Economy Illusion)

Aspect Issue

Per Capita GDP s

At $2,711 (nominal), India ranks 144th out of 196 – indicating
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widespread poverty despite high total GDP.

Inequality and India’s income is concentrated in a few hands, with 70%+

Informality informal workers and unpaid care work largely unaccounted.
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Volatile Comparisons Nominal GDP comparisons are skewed by exchange rate

fluctuations, not by real productive gains.

Underwhelming Despite GDP growth, HDI, education outcomes, health

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Human Development infrastructure remain below global averages.

Unemployment and Labour force participation, especially of women, is low. Most

Underemployment
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new jobs are informal or gig-based.

Real Measures of Development

Indicator India’s Standing

Human Development Index (HDI, Rank 130 out of 193 countries

2025)

Global Hunger Index (2024) Rank 105 out of 127 countries

Per Capita GDP (2024) Nominal: $2,711; PPP: $9,200

Labour Force Participation Rate Women: ~41%, below global average of 47%

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Education (ASER, NFHS) Low learning outcomes, high dropout in
secondary levels

Way Forward: Making Growth Meaningful

1. Focus on job-rich sectors: MSMEs, labour-intensive manufacturing, green

economy

2. Invest in human capital: education, nutrition, healthcare

3. Integrate Time Use Surveys to measure unpaid work and informal economy

4. Strengthen autonomy and transparency of statistical agencies

5. Encourage data-driven discourse over headline-driven narratives

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6. Use India’s fiscal space to build infrastructure, skill workforce, and deepen social

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protection

Conclusion: GDP size alone does not reflect how the majority of Indians live. For a truly
Viksit Bharat by 2047, India must move from quantitative growth to qualitative
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development – where every citizen shares in the fruits of prosperity.
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1.3. Can India escape middle-income trap?
Context: The Middle-Income Trap (MIT) refers to a situation where a country's growth
slows after reaching middle-income levels and it fails to transition to high-income status,
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typically due to productivity stagnation, weak innovation, poor human capital, and
institutional bottlenecks.

Coined by the World Bank, countries are

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classified as:

➢ Low-income: per capita GNI <

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$1,135

➢ Middle-income: $1,136 to $13,845

➢ High-income: > $13,845

India, with a per capita income of ~$2,700 (nominal) and ~$9,200 (PPP), remains in the
lower-middle income group and is vulnerable to the MIT.

Why is the MIT Relevant for India Now?

India is the 5th largest economy by size, but remains far behind in per capita income,
human development, and productivity. It faces the classic warning signs of the middle-
income trap:

1) Slowing growth post rapid expansion phase (2000–2010)

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2) Persistent unemployment and underemployment, especially among youth (47% of
Indian graduates unemployable (India Skills Report))

3) Stagnant manufacturing share in GDP

4) Rising inequality and informal sector dominance

5) Low R&D intensity and innovation capacity (GERD < 0.7% of GDP vs. 2%+ in
successful economies)

Escaping the Middle-Income Trap- Way Forward:

1. Revamp school-to-work pipeline (NEP + vocational focus)

2. Increase spending on health and nutrition (currently <3% of GDP)

3. Scale up public and private R&D investment (upwards of 2% of GDP)

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4. Develop labour-intensive sectors (textiles, electronics, green energy)

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5. Reduce logistics and compliance costs via Gati Shakti, Digital India

6. Improve regulatory stability, ease of doing business, contract enforcement

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7. Build urban clusters and skill corridors for competitive job hubs
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Conclusion: India stands at a critical inflection point. While its demographic size and
economic heft create global recognition, the risk of a Middle-Income Trap is real and
imminent. To avoid it, India must make a strategic pivot towards human development,
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innovation, institutional reform, and inclusive industrialisation.

1.4. Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment

Context: The rapid advancement and deployment of Generative AI (GenAI) and
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autonomous agents are beginning to reshape job markets across the globe. In India, rising
anxiety among job seekers, a visible slowdown in job creation, and expert warnings signal a
pivotal shift. Reports from TeamLease, Infosys, IMF, Goldman Sachs, and Anthropic
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point to deep structural disruptions in employment, especially entry-level white-collar

roles.

Artificial Intelligence, particularly in its generative and inference forms, is automating

cognitive tasks once deemed safe from machine substitution. The concern today is not if AI
will impact employment, but how deeply and how fast.

a. IMF: ~40% of global jobs could be affected.

b. Goldman Sachs: AI may replace or augment 300 million full-time jobs.
c. US Senate & Bill Gates: Jobs in teaching, medicine, law, marketing, HR,
design, and media may face displacement.

Policy Recommendations: A Roadmap for AI-Resilient Employment

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Policy Area Action Needed

Education Reform Integrate AI, data science, computational thinking from school level

Skill Recalibrate NSDC to create AI-ready workforce with short-cycle

Development skilling

Labour Policy Introduce "Right to Reskill", safety nets for displaced workers

R&D and Incentivize AI start-ups, invest in human-centered AI (IndiaAI

Innovation Mission)

Social Protection Explore universal basic income pilots and portable benefits in gig
economy

AI Governance Ethical AI frameworks, regulation on responsible adoption and

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layoffs (Paris AI Action Summit)

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Conclusion: India stands at the cusp of a technological leap and a livelihood crisis. AI's
promise cannot be realized without human resilience. To avoid a "white-collar bloodbath"
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and mass underemployment, India must rethink education, redesign skilling, and future-
proof jobs.
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1.5. Unemployed Youth Are Still the Achilles Heel of India’s Buoyant
Economy
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Context: Despite growing at a robust 8.2% in FY 2023-24, India faces an alarming paradox
of jobless growth, particularly among its youth.

Recent reports from CMIE, ILO, Azim Premji

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University, and Citigroup expose a deep-rooted

mismatch between economic growth and
employment creation, especially for educated
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young Indians.

Alarming Indicators:

Metric Latest Data

Youth Unemployment Rate (CMIE) 29.1% among graduates (2024)

Govt Unemployment Rate (PLFS 2024-25) 5.6%

Share of Youth (15–29) in Total 82.9%

Unemployed (ILO)

Educated Youth (Share in Total 65.7% (2024) up from 54.2% (2000)

Unemployed)

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Root Causes

Structural Factors Policy Factors

Jobless nature of growth Inadequate job-linked industrial policies

Poor education–employment linkage Fragmented and underfunded skilling

schemes

Rural–urban divide in opportunities Excessive focus on capital-intensive sectors

Low investment in labour-intensive Government job vacancies left unfilled

industries

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Way Forward for Youth Job Creation:

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1. Expand labour-intensive manufacturing (textiles, electronics, green tech)

2. Leverage PLI schemes with job-creation incentives

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3. Align curricula with market needs
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4. Strengthen apprenticeship models and dual education pathways

5. Recalibrate Skill India with local employer tie-ups and updated tech modules

6. Expand women-centric job schemes, flexible work policies, and safety infrastructure
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Conclusion: High growth without high-quality jobs is a dangerous contradiction. To

convert its demographic surplus into a development dividend, India must urgently
rethink its job creation strategy, reform its skilling ecosystem, and tackle youth
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unemployment as a national emergency.

1.6. Zepto workers’ strike: In India’s gig economy, the continuing

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struggle for dignity

Context: India’s gig economy—once heralded as a symbol of entrepreneurial freedom and
digital opportunity—is now at the heart of a labour rights crisis. The Zepto strike in
Hyderabad (2025), following similar agitations at
Swiggy, Blinkit, and Ola, has brought gig
workers’ exploitation, lack of protection, and
absence of bargaining rights to the forefront of
national debate.

As India seeks to maintain its growth trajectory

and digital edge, systemic reforms in gig
employment are emerging as a moral and economic imperative.

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Who are gig workers?

Individuals who earn income by providing labor or services through digital platforms
(e.g., Zepto, Swiggy, Uber).

Features: Flexible hours, task-based work || No formal contracts || Algorithmic control

through platforms ||| Absence of traditional employer-employee relationship

Scale of the Gig Economy in India

Indicator Data Point

Estimated gig workers ~7.7 million (NITI Aayog)

(2023)

Projected by 2030 ~23.5 million

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Major Sectors Transport, food delivery, logistics, domestic work, IT freelancing

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Key Challenges faced by Gig Workers:

Challenge Details

No Legal Employer Status

s Companies disown responsibility, call themselves
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“technology platforms”

Wage Volatility & Promised ₹30,000/month; paid half with deductions

Misrepresentation
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Precarity & Algorithmic No fixed hours, surveillance via GPS, app-based

Control ratings
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Lack of Social Security Healthcare, accident insurance, pensions absent

despite e-Shram registration

Exclusion from Labour Rights No collective bargaining or union protection

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Gender Inequities Women form 95% of NEETs; lower platform

participation due to safety and bias

Way Forward for Gig Workers

1. Notify and implement the Code on Social Security, 2020 with enforceable rights
2. Extend employer liability and social protection mandates to platforms
3. Establish a Gig Worker Grievance Redressal Authority
4. Legally recognise gig workers’ right to unionise and bargain collectively
5. Levy a welfare cess on platform earnings (as in Karnataka) to build a dedicated
Gig Worker Fund

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#Conclusion: To ensure sustainable and equitable growth, India must move from
recognising gig workers as beneficiaries to empowering them as rights-bearing workers at
the heart of the modern economy.

1.7. Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme

Context: The Union Cabinet approved the Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme
with an outlay of ₹99,446 crore. It is aimed at job creation, especially in the manufacturing
sector, as part of the Prime Minister’s 5-point employment facilitation package (2024-25
Budget promise).

Key Provisions:

Target: Creation of over 3.5 crore jobs within two years (Aug 1, 2025 – July 31, 2027).
Implementation Agency: Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO).

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1. Incentives for Employees:

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a. Salaries up to ₹1 lakh eligible.
b. Two EPF wage transfers (up to ₹15,000 each) at 6 and 12 months.
c. Partial benefit in a fixed deposit instrument for deferred withdrawal.
2. Incentives for Employers:
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a. ₹3,000/month for two years per sustained new employee.
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b. For manufacturing sector: incentive extended to third and fourth year.

Implementation Risks:

Risk Implication
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Misuse by employers Artificial job creation to claim benefits

Exclusion of micro units (<20 May exclude vast majority of Indian enterprises
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employees)

Ambiguity on fund flow EPFO’s role unclear in deploying taxpayer funds

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Limited coverage ₹3,000 incentive may not offset employer cost for
high-skill jobs

State capacity Weak EPFO tech infrastructure may delay verification

and disbursement

Suggestions for Improvement

1. Bring ELI under MSME Ministry with real-time payroll-linked disbursement

2. Include micro units and gig platforms under relaxed norms
3. Link ELI scheme to minimum wage guarantees and skill-matching metrics
4. Real-time auditing via Aadhaar-verified payrolls
5. Third-party impact assessments on job sustainability, gender impact

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2. Inclusive Growth and issues arising from it
2.1. Unprecedented Decline in Poverty and associated issues
#Context: Recent World Bank estimates suggest that poverty in India has sharply
declined, with only 5.3% of the population below the $3/day poverty line (PPP, 2021), and
2.3% below the older $2.15 line. This implies a massive reduction in absolute poverty over
the past decade. However, multidimensional poverty, inequality, youth unemployment,
and nutrition deprivation persist, questioning the sustainability and inclusiveness of
India’s growth.

The contradiction between headline poverty

reduction and persisting deprivation
underscores the need to examine the quality of

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growth, not just quantity.

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Dimensions of Poverty in India

Metric Latest Findings

Monetary Poverty (World Bank)

s $3/day poverty: 5.3% (2022-23); $2.15/day:
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2.3%

Multidimensional Poverty (UNDP, 234 million poor; 16.4% of population

2024)
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Child Malnutrition (NFHS 2019–21) 35.5% stunted, 19.3% wasted, 32.1%

underweight

Unemployment (PLFS 2025) Youth (15–29): 13.7% rural, 17.9% urban

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Labour Share in GVA Stagnant; corporate profits surged

Wealth Inequality (Oxfam) Top 1% owns 40% of wealth; bottom 50% owns
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3%

Key Issues with Measuring Poverty

1. Divergent Benchmarks: Global thresholds like $2.15, $3, $3.65/day (PPP) fail to reflect
national realities and don’t capture access to services.

2. Survey Comparability: World Bank used 2011–12 and 2022–23 Household Consumption
Expenditure Survey (HCES), but methodological changes between the two raise questions
on comparability.

3. Monetary vs Multidimensional Poverty: Narrow income-based measures mask

deprivations in health, education, and living standards.

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Why Has Monetary Poverty Declined?

Factor Role

GDP Growth Moderate, but not equitable; jobless in nature

Welfare Programs Free foodgrains (PMGKAY), subsidised LPG, and DBT schemes
played a crucial short-term role

Rural Consumption MGNREGA and PM-KISAN helped rural households during

Support shocks like COVID

However, critics argue that growth was not the primary driver—safety nets were.

Gaps in Inclusive Growth

S
Area Issue

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Job Creation Jobless growth; ~12 million youth enter labour force annually, but
only ~8–9 million jobs created (Citi)

Inequality Top 1% wealth share rising; consumption, education, and health

gaps growing
s
en
Access to Basic Malnutrition, under-enrolment, and poor public healthcare persist
Services

Gender Inequality FLFPR remains below global average

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Urban–Rural Stark gaps in infrastructure, income, and digital access

Divide
es

Social Mobility Limited opportunities for upward mobility among SCs, STs, and
OBCs
Fr

Pillars of Inclusive Growth

Pillar Policy Direction

Employment-Centric Shift from capital-intensive to labour-intensive sectors (textiles,

Growth agro-processing, green jobs)

Universal Social Expand coverage beyond food and cash transfers to include
Protection health, education, insurance

Skilling and Education Focus on future skills, vocational education, and school-to-
work transitions

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Gender Equity Provide safe transport, flexible work hours, and child-care for
women’s participation

Health and Nutrition Strengthen POSHAN Abhiyaan, ICDS, urban health mission

Urban Inclusion Invest in affordable housing, public transport, sanitation in

slums and informal settlements

Recommendations and Reforms

1. Measure Poverty Holistically: Institutionalise a national Multidimensional Poverty

Index (MPI) alongside income poverty (e.g. NITI Aayog’s MPI)
2. Employment Guarantee for Urban Poor: Scale MGNREGA-like schemes in urban India

S
(e.g. Kerala’s Ayyankali Urban Employment Guarantee Scheme (AUEGS))
3. Targeted Manufacturing Zones: Incentivize industries in backward districts for local

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employment
4. Minimum Income Floor: Explore feasibility of guaranteed minimum income for
vulnerable households
5. Data Transparency: Regular release of credible labour, poverty, and consumption data
s
6. Fiscal Reprioritisation: Invest more in human capital than in regressive subsidies.
en
#Conclusion: While headline poverty may be declining on global benchmarks, India’s
poverty story remains unfinished. Without addressing youth joblessness, inequality,
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malnutrition, and human capital deficits, economic growth alone cannot lift all boats. True
inclusive growth lies not just in expanding the GDP pie, but in ensuring everyone has a
fair share of it—with dignity, opportunity, and security.
es

2.2. Inequality slashes India’s human development score by nearly a

third: UNDP report
Fr

Context: The 2025 Human Development Report (UNDP) revealed that inequality reduced
India’s HDI score by 30.7%. It was one of the highest losses in Asia.
Despite rising from rank 133 to 130, India's inequality remains a critical drag on
sustainable and inclusive human development.

What Is Inequality and Why It Matters

Inequality in India manifests across income, education, health, caste, gender, region, and
digital access. It results in uneven life chances, undermining the potential of the poor,
marginalised, and women.

Key Inequality Trends in India

Indicator Latest Findings

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HDI Value 0.685 (2023); up from 0.676

Inequality-Adjusted HDI Loss 30.7% – among highest in Asia

Life Expectancy 72 years (record high)

Female Labour Force ~41%, less than global average

Participation (FLFP)

Wealth Inequality Top 1% owns 40% of wealth (Oxfam, 2023)

Political Representation of Improved due to 33% reservation law in legislatures

Women

Education Gender gap persists in higher education and dropout

rates

S
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Way Forward: Same as the ones provided for inclusive growth above.

3. Government Budgeting
s
3.1. Change of Fiscal Anchor in India: From Fiscal Deficit to Debt-GDP
en
Ratio
Context: In a significant departure from tradition, the Union Budget 2025 announced a
shift in India’s fiscal anchor from the fiscal deficit-to-GDP ratio to a debt-to-GDP ratio
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starting FY 2026–27.
This marks a paradigm shift in fiscal
consolidation strategy, aligning with global
best practices and offering greater flexibility
es

and medium-term clarity in public finance

management.
Fr

What Is a Fiscal Anchor?

A fiscal anchor is a rule or target that limits

the government’s fiscal policy to ensure long-term debt sustainability and macroeconomic
stability.
India’s traditional anchor:
Fiscal Deficit (% of GDP) – Annual limit on how much the government can borrow.
New anchor:
Debt-to-GDP Ratio – The total accumulated debt of the government as a share of GDP.

Why the Shift? Rationale and Benefits

Reason Explanation

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Cumulative Measure Debt-to-GDP reflects cumulative impact of past deficits, unlike
fiscal deficit which is flow-based

International Aligns with practices by IMF, OECD, and many G20 countries
Alignment that use debt sustainability frameworks

Operational Provides leeway in annual deficit targets while preserving long-

Flexibility term fiscal discipline

Transparency Complements efforts to disclose off-budget borrowings;

improves fiscal accountability

Growth-Oriented Allows fiscal space for growth-enhancing investments in

Strategy infrastructure, social sectors

S
Targets and Timeline

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Year Estimated Central Govt. Debt-GDP Ratio

FY25 (RE) 57.1%

FY26 (BE) 56.1% s

en
Target by FY31 50% ± 1% under three scenarios

Concerns and Challenges

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Critique Explanation

Postponement of FRBM FRBM Act mandates 40% debt-GDP and 3% fiscal deficit;
Targets current path delays compliance by years
es

Crowding Out of Private Combined Centre-State deficit (~7.7%) restricts

Borrowing private/corporate borrowing space domestically
Fr

Data and Transparency Off-budget liabilities and contingent liabilities may

Issues understate actual debt

Lack of Institutional No independent fiscal council yet to enforce accountability

Oversight on targets

3.2. Highlights of the Budget 2025-26

Macro-Fiscal Snapshot

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Item 2024-25 2025-26 (BE) Strategic Signal
(RE)

Total — ₹ 50.65 lakh cr Counter-cyclical—capex heavy

Expenditure

Net Tax — ₹ 28.37 lakh cr Reliance on buoyant GST &

Receipts direct taxes

Fiscal Deficit 4.8 % 4.4 % of GDP On glide path to new debt

anchor

Gross — ₹ 14.82 lakh cr Lower than FY25—easing

Borrowing crowd-out

Capital Outlay — ₹ 11.21 lakh cr (3.1 % Sixth annual capex surge; infra

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GDP) push

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Four “Engines of Development”

Engine Flagship Initiatives Intended Outcomes

1. Agriculture &
s
1. Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Raise farm productivity,
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Rural Yojana (100 low-productivity diversify crops, rural jobs,
districts) import-substitution
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2. Mission Aatmanirbharta in
Pulses (6 yrs)

3. National Mission on High-

Yield Seeds
es

4. Cotton, fisheries, makhana

boards;
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5. KCC loan ceiling ↑ ₹5 lakh

2. MSMEs & Start- 1. Revised MSME thresholds Formalisation, easier credit,

ups (+2.5× investment) inclusive enterprise creation

2. ₹5 lakh Udyam Credit Cards

3. ₹10k cr Start-up FoF 2.0

4. Term-loan scheme for 5 lakh

first-gen SC/ST/Women
entrepreneurs

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3. Investment (People 1. 50-yr capex loans to states Crowd-in private capital, spur
+ Economy + ₹1.5 lakh cr infra & tech R&D, human-
Innovation) capital upgrade
2. Urban Challenge Fund ₹1
lakh cr

3. PPP pipeline & Asset-

Monetisation-II (₹10 lakh cr)

4. 20k cr Deep-tech RDI fund

5. 50k Atal Tinkering Labs

4. Exports & Global 1. Export Promotion Mission Boost trade competitiveness,

Integration with sectoral targets integrate tier-2 cities into GVCs

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2. BharatTradeNet single trade
window

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3. National framework for
Global Capability Centres
(GCCs)
s
en
Reform Fuel – Financial & Regulatory

1. Debt Anchor: central debt-to-GDP to 50 ± 1 % by FY31.

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2. Insurance FDI: cap lifted to 100 % (India-invested).

3. Partial Credit Enhancement by NaBFID to deepen bond market.
4. Jan Vishwas Bill 2.0: >100 offences decriminalised.
5. Investment Friendliness Index to trigger healthy state-level competition.
es

6. High-Level Committee on Non-Financial Regulations – streamlining licences &

certifications.

Social & Human Capital Push

Fr

Sector Key Budget Moves Medium-Term Impact

Education & 1. 5 National CoEs + Centre of Industry-ready talent, AI

Skilling Excellence in AI (₹500 cr) capability
2. Extra capacity in 5 new IITs (+6,500
seats)

Health 1. 10,000 more UG medical seats (1-yr) Reduce doctor deficit, early
2. Day-care cancer centres in every cancer care
district (3 yrs)

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Nutrition & 1. Saksham Anganwadi/Poshan cost Tackle stunting; gender-
Women norms hike inclusive credit
2. Women-led loan scheme (5 yrs)

Gig & Urban 1. Social-security ID + Ayushman for Extend welfare net, urban
platform workers livelihood resilience
2. Revamped PM-SVANidhi (₹30k
credit cards)

Green, Tech & Future-Ready Initiatives

1. Nuclear Energy Mission – ₹20k cr for 5 indigenous SMRs by 2033.

2. National Geospatial Mission – foundational data economy.

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3. Critical-Minerals Policy – extraction from tailings.
4. Maritime Development Fund ₹25k cr & revamped shipbuilding subsidy.

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5. Modified UDAN 2.0 – 120 new destinations; focus on NE & hilly regions.

4. Major Crops - Cropping Patterns in various parts of the country,

- Different Types of Irrigation and Irrigation Systems; Storage,
s
Transport and Marketing of Agricultural Produce and Issues and
en
Related Constraints; E-technology in the aid of farmers
4.1. What Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana aims to achieve,
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how PMDKY will be implemented

Context: The Prime Minister Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana (PM-DKDY) is a flagship
initiative launched in Union Budget 2025-26, drawing inspiration from the Aspirational
es

Districts Programme (ADP). It aims to revitalize underperforming agri-districts through a

focused, data-driven, and convergence-based
development model.
Fr

Objectives

PM-DKDY is designed with the following five key

objectives:

1. Enhancing agricultural productivity through scientific practices and input support.

2. Promoting crop diversification and sustainable agriculture (climate-smart

approaches).

3. Expanding post-harvest infrastructure (storage and logistics) at panchayat/block

levels.

4. Improving irrigation infrastructure, including micro-irrigation systems.

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5. Facilitating access to agricultural credit (both short-term and long-term).

Coverage and Targeting Criteria

1. Coverage: 100 identified districts (initial phase).

2. Target Beneficiaries: ~1.7 crore farmers.
3. Selection Parameters:
a. Low agricultural productivity
b. Moderate cropping intensity (below national average of ~155%)
c. Below-average credit penetration (agri-loans/credit ratios)

Institutional Framework & Implementation

Component Details

Lead Ministry Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare

S
Coordination In partnership with State Governments

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Implementation Convergence of Central schemes like PMKSY, PMFBY, RKVY, e-
Model NAM, PMFME

Monitoring s
Based on incremental improvement through district rankings (like
ADP)
en
Funding Pattern No distinct allocation yet; to draw funds from existing
departmental schemes, additional allocations possible post-Cabinet
approval
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4.2. Government announces 6-year pulses mission to achieve self-

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sufficiency
#Context: The Six-Year Pulses Mission, announced in the Union Budget 2025–26, marks a
decisive shift in India's agricultural policy.
Fr

Aimed at achieving complete self-sufficiency

in key pulses by 2029, the mission is aligned
with the vision of Aatmanirbhar Bharat,
reducing import dependency, ensuring food
security, and addressing climate and inflation
vulnerabilities.

Background and Rationale

India is the world’s largest consumer and importer of pulses, consuming over 27 million
tonnes annually while producing only ~25 million tonnes in recent years. Despite a 37%
production increase since 2015–16, imports surged by 84% in FY 2023–24, reaching 4.65
million tonnes and costing $3.75 billion.

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Major factors include:

1. Erratic monsoons and climate shocks (El Niño events)

2. Low productivity per hectare in pulses compared to cereals

3. Inadequate post-harvest infrastructure and price volatility

4. Rising protein demand from a growing population

Objectives of the Mission

1. Achieve self-sufficiency in tur, urad, and masoor by 2028–29

2. Improve farmers’ income through assured procurement and fair pricing
3. Enhance climate resilience and sustainability in pulse production
4. Stabilize domestic prices and control inflation

S
5. Boost nutritional security among the population

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Core Pillars of Implementation

Pillar Key Measures

1. Climate-Resilient 150 seed hubs to distribute high-yielding, drought-tolerant seeds

Varieties s
in collaboration with ICAR, KVKs, and state agri-universities
en
2. Fallow Land Expansion of pulse cultivation into rice fallows and non-
Utilization traditional areas using location-specific interventions

3. Guaranteed Central agencies like NAFED and NCCF to directly procure tur,
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Procurement urad, and masoor from registered farmers at MSP

4. Post-Harvest Investment in decentralized storage, warehousing, and

Infrastructure processing units at block/panchayat level
es

5. Digital Use of e-NAM, farmer registration portals, and real-time crop

Integration monitoring for transparent transactions
Fr

4.3. Government launches National Mission on Edible Oils – Oilseeds

(NMEO-Oilseeds)
Context: In a major strategic move towards Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), the
Union Cabinet approved the National Mission on
Edible Oils – Oilseeds (NMEO-Oilseeds) for the
period 2024–25 to 2030–31 with an outlay of
₹10,103 crore. The mission aims to drastically
reduce India’s dependence on edible oil imports
by boosting domestic oilseed production through

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targeted interventions in the entire value chain—from seed to post-harvest infrastructure.

Rationale:

India currently imports 57% of its edible oil requirements, making it the largest importer
of edible oils globally. Despite being among the largest producer of oilseeds, a mismatch
between domestic production and rising consumption has led to high import bills and
vulnerability to global price shocks.

Key challenges:

1. Low yields in oilseed crops compared to global averages

2. Limited cultivation area under oilseeds

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3. Inadequate seed and post-harvest infrastructure

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4. Poor recovery from secondary sources like cottonseed, rice bran

Objectives

1. Increase oilseed production from 39 MT (2022–23) to 69.7 MT by 2030–31

2.
s
Boost domestic edible oil production to 25.45 MT, meeting ~72% of the total demand
en
3. Expand cultivation area by 40 lakh hectares
4. Enhance farmers’ income through higher yields, MSP assurance, and efficient value
chains
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5. Conserve foreign exchange by reducing edible oil imports

Key Features and Strategy

Pillar Key Initiatives

es

Seed Ecosystem - Launch of SATHI portal for 5-year rolling seed plans
Modernization
- Creation of 65 seed hubs and 50 storage units
Fr

- Use of genome editing and high oil content seed varieties

Production Expansion - Focus crops: Mustard, Soybean, Groundnut, Sunflower,

Sesamum

- Cultivation in fallow lands (rice & potato)

- Intercropping to optimize land use

Value Chain Development - 600+ Value Chain Clusters in 347 districts

- Participation of FPOs, cooperatives, private entities

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- Training on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and
pest/weather advisory

Post-Harvest & Processing - Incentives for oil extraction units from cottonseed, rice
Support bran, TBOs

- Modernization of existing infrastructure

Consumer Awareness & - Nationwide IEC campaign to promote dietary

Nutrition diversification and rational use of edible oils

4.4. Government announces National Mission on High Yielding Seeds

in Budget 2025

S
#Context: India faces multiple agrarian challenges—climate change, stagnant productivity,

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water stress, and rising food demand. To address these, the Government of India has
launched the National Mission on High
Yielding Seeds (NMHYS) as part of its
Budget 2025–26, focusing on sustainable and
s
climate-resilient agriculture. This mission is
en
a critical part of India’s strategy to boost
agricultural output, ensure food security,
and reduce emissions from food systems.
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Objectives

1. Strengthen the agricultural research ecosystem, especially through the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
2. Develop and propagate high-yielding, pest-resistant, and climate-resilient seed
es

varieties
3. Ensure commercial availability of 100+ new seed varieties developed since July 2024
4. Mainstream climate-smart agriculture while enhancing farmer incomes
Fr

Key Features:

Area Strategic Focus

Research and Boost public-private R&D on traits like drought/flood tolerance,

Development pest resistance, and high nutrient uptake

Seed Dissemination Commercial release and large-scale propagation of 100+

advanced varieties

Institutional Support Strengthen ICAR and State Agricultural Universities for

regional adaptation

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Incentivization Promote seed innovation through restored 200% income tax
deduction on R&D

Priority Crops Millets, pulses, oilseeds, and climate-sensitive staples like rice
and cotton

Climate Mitigation and Food Security Linkages

High-yielding and climate-resilient seeds can:

1. Reduce emissions from agriculture, which accounts for 34% of global GHG
emissions (Nature Food, 2021)

2. Enhance nutrient uptake, reduce crop losses, and improve soil health

S
3. Curb land-use change and forest clearance by increasing productivity per hectare

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4. Help adapt to erratic monsoons, droughts, floods, and salinity caused by global
warming

4.5. Govt bolsters Agri Stack with ₹6,000 crore allocation to empower
farmers
s
en
#Context: India’s digital transformation in governance has enabled scalable citizen services
in finance, healthcare, and education. To bring
similar data-driven transformation in
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agriculture, the Government launched the

Digital Agriculture Mission (2024–27) with an
outlay of ₹2,817 crore.
es

This mission seeks to develop Digital Public

Infrastructure (DPI) for agriculture, ensuring
real-time, accurate, and integrated services for
Fr

11 crore farmers by leveraging technologies like

AI, remote sensing, GIS, and big data analytics.

Objectives

1. Digitally empower farmers with Farmer ID-linked services

2. Improve efficiency in service delivery, crop planning, insurance, and input distribution
3. Enable data-based governance in agriculture
4. Enhance transparency, inclusiveness, and accountability in schemes

Key Pillars of the Mission

1. AgriStack: “Kisan ki Pehchaan”

AgriStack is a Farmer-Centric DPI that includes:

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1. Farmer Registry – A unique digital Farmer ID (like Aadhaar) linked to land records,
livestock, and benefits

2. Geo-referenced Village Maps – Spatial data for land demarcation and service
targeting

3. Crop Sown Registry – Digitally verified crop records for insurance, credit, and
advisories

2. Krishi Decision Support System (DSS)

A geospatial platform integrating:

1. Satellite imagery

2. Soil, weather, crop, and water data

S
3. To support real-time crop advisory, climate adaptation, and precision farming.

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3. Soil Profile Mapping

• Mapping of 142 million ha of agricultural land at 1:10,000 scale

• s
Already covered: 29 million ha
en
• Enables nutrient management, land use planning, and input optimization

D. Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES)

• Technology-led crop-cutting experiments

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• Better yield estimation for procurement, insurance, and policy

4.6. Cabinet approves irrigation scheme for ‘modernising’ water

management
es

Context: India is home to 18% of the world’s population but has only 4% of global
freshwater resources. With over 50% of net sown area still rainfed and a rising demand
Fr

for food, efficient and equitable irrigation is essential. Recognizing this, the Government
launched the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) in 2015 with the vision of
“Har Khet Ko Pani” (water to every field) and improving water-use efficiency (“More
Crop per Drop”).

In 2025, to scale up water efficiency and

modernize irrigation delivery, the Union
Cabinet approved the Modernisation of
Command Area Development and Water
Management (M-CADWM) sub-scheme
under PMKSY with an outlay of ₹1,600
crore.

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Objectives

PMKSY (Umbrella Scheme):

1. Ensure access to irrigation for every farm (“Har Khet Ko Pani”)

2. Improve on-farm water-use efficiency

3. Encourage water conservation through precision and micro-irrigation

4. Integrate water source creation, distribution, and field application

M-CADWM (Sub-Scheme):

1. Modernize existing irrigation water supply systems from canals and water sources

2. Improve Water Use Efficiency (WUE) using smart technologies (SCADA, IoT)

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3. Promote underground pressurized piped systems for micro-irrigation

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4. Empower Water User Societies (WUS) via Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT)

5. Encourage youth participation in agriculture via tech-driven irrigation

Key Features:

Feature
s
Description
en
Tech-enabled Water Integration of SCADA and IoT for real-time water flow,
Management leak detection, and smart scheduling
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Pressurized Piped Up to 1 hectare per farm with micro-irrigation-ready

Irrigation delivery infrastructure

Irrigation Management Empowering Water User Societies (WUS) with

Transfer (IMT) management responsibility, support for 5 years
es

Institutional Linkages Facilitating collaboration of WUS with FPOs and PACS for
sustainability
Fr

Youth Engagement Use of modern tools to make agriculture attractive for rural
youth

Implementation Strategy

1. Joint implementation by Ministry of Jal Shakti and State Irrigation Departments

2. Identification of command areas with existing irrigation infrastructure
3. Monitoring through digitized platforms and dashboards
4. Capacity building of Water User Associations and training for tech adoption

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5. Issues related to Direct and Indirect Farm Subsidies and
Minimum Support Prices; Public Distribution System - Objectives,
Functioning, Limitations, Revamping; Issues of Buffer Stocks and
Food Security; Technology Missions; Economics of Animal-
Rearing
5.1. MSP is not enough. Government should become key player in
markets to relieve farmer distress
Context: The Minimum Support Price
(MSP) system was introduced in the 1960s to
ensure remunerative prices for farmers and

S
build buffer stocks for food security.
However, demands for a legally guaranteed

IA
MSP—particularly following the 2020–21
farmer protests—have reignited the debate
over its relevance, efficacy, and future in
India’s dynamic agricultural economy.
s
en
Core Issues with Legally Binding MSP

Issue Implications

Price Distortions Guaranteed MSP irrespective of demand can lead to excess

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supply, inefficiency, and wastage.

Limited Coverage Only ~6% of farmers benefit from MSP procurement (mostly
rice/wheat in Punjab-Haryana).
es

Exclusion of Non- MSP does not protect rural traders, landless labourers, or tenant
Cultivators farmers.
Fr

Climate Shocks > MSP stabilizes price, but not yields—leaving farmers vulnerable
Price Shocks to climate variability.

Misaligned Overproduction of MSP crops (e.g., rice) misaligned with

Production dietary shifts, water stress, and nutrition goals.

Proposed Alternatives and Reforms

Quasi-Universal Basic Income (q-UBI)

1. Extends income support (e.g., PM-KISAN) beyond landowners to include tenant

farmers, sharecroppers, rural labourers.

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2. Suggested payout: equivalent to average income of a 5-acre farmer to offset price/yield
shocks.

Price Deficiency Payments (PDP)

3. Farmers are compensated when market prices fall below MSP, without actual
procurement.

4. Example: Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojana (Madhya Pradesh).

5. Ensures market adaptability and prevents stockpiling/wastage by public agencies.

Rationalised and Diversified Procurement

6. Expand PDS procurement beyond wheat and rice to include pulses, oilseeds, coarse
grains, onions etc.

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7. Aligns procurement with changing consumption patterns and nutritional needs.

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State-led Implementation with Fiscal Accountability

8. PM-AASHA and decentralised procurement models empower states.

9. Central funds tied to performance-linked disbursement, storage efficiency, and crop

s
utilisation in PDS/schemes.
en
Strategic Reserves at Market Prices

10. Government acts as a market stabiliser (not a price-guarantor), buying based on

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demand forecasts.

11. Reduces market volatility while respecting price discovery mechanisms.

es

5.2. Reforming the Public Distribution System (PDS) in India

Context: India’s Public Distribution System (PDS) is one of the largest food security
Fr

programs in the world, distributing subsidized foodgrains to over 800 million beneficiaries
under the National Food Security Act
(NFSA), 2013. It aims to alleviate hunger,
stabilize food prices, and ensure food
security for vulnerable populations.

However, recent field reports from states

like Jharkhand, Odisha, and Bihar have
revealed persistent issues in coverage,
leakage, exclusion, and nutritional gaps,
raising concerns about the system’s equity and efficiency.

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Key Issues with the Current PDS

1. Exclusion and Accessibility Gaps

Issue Example

Non-inclusion of Musahar community in Bihar lacks ration cards or complete family

eligible households enrolment.

Mandatory biometric Excludes those without Aadhaar linkages, especially the elderly and
verification disabled.

Irrelevant demands for caste, income, and residence certificates,

Document overload
despite no legal basis under NFSA or PDS Control Order 2015.

2. Leakages and Corruption

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1. 28% of allocated grains (~19.69 MMT) do not reach beneficiaries (HCES 2023 data).

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2. Estimated annual loss: ₹69,108 crore at economic cost (ICRIER analysis).
3. Diversion and under-supply by FPS dealers — BPL households receiving 4
kg/person instead of 5 kg, poor-quality rice.
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3. Digital Divide and Exploitation
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1. Middlemen exploit illiterate or digitally excluded citizens by charging ₹3,000+ for
ration card assistance, often fraudulently.
2. Online systems without grievance redress exacerbate bureaucratic apathy.
hL

4. Over-Universalisation

1. 57% of population covered under PMGKAY (Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna
Yojana), though extreme poverty is only ~13% (World Bank, 2022).
es

2. Resource strain leads to fiscal inefficiency and under-investment in agriculture,

health, and infrastructure.

5. Nutritional Blindness
Fr

1. NFHS-5: 35.5% stunting, 32.1% underweight, 19.3% wasting in children under 5.

2. PDS is cereal-centric (rice/wheat), with minimal protein or micronutrient support.

Suggested Reforms and Strategic Shifts

Targeted Rationalisation

I. Reassess PDS coverage:

a. Free food only to Antyodaya (poorest 15%).

b. Others can co-pay 50% of MSP, like under the original TPDS model (1997).

II. This can save thousands of crores annually, reallocated to public goods (irrigation,
R&D).

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Digitally Enabled Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT)

III. Transfer subsidy amounts directly to Jan Dhan accounts.

IV. Odisha and Chandigarh DBT pilots show promise in cost savings and satisfaction.

Nutrition-Sensitive PDS

V. Convert selected FPS into "Nutrition Hubs":

a. Offer millets, pulses, eggs, fortified foods, etc., in addition to cereals.

b. Implement digital food coupons redeemable at registered outlets.

Simplified and Legal Enrolment Process

VI. Uniform national portal with minimum documentation (Aadhaar + Self-

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declaration).

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VII. Remove caste/income/residence certificate requirement unless legally mandated.

VIII. Ensure auto-inclusion of marginalised groups (homeless, SC/STs, single women).

Community and Grievance Accountability

IX.
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Local social audits, FPS rating systems, and public dashboards.
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X. FPS automation + ePoS + GPS logistics to improve transparency.

6-7. Food Processing and Related Industries in India- Scope’ and

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Significance, Location, Upstream and Downstream Requirements,

Supply Chain Management; Land Reforms in India
6-7.1. Why digitisation is not enough to reform land laws
es

Context: Land in India is both a productive asset and a socio-political institution. However,
India’s land governance framework is complex, fragmented, and outdated, impeding
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progress on agriculture, infrastructure,

credit access, gender equity, and
urbanization.
The Economic Survey 2023-24 highlighted
that unresolved land issues — unclear
titles, insecure tenure, and inefficient
markets — constrain rural incomes,
infrastructure projects, and climate-
resilient growth.
While Budget 2024 emphasized digitization and technological interventions such as Agri
Stack integration, these efforts risk falling short if structural legal and institutional
reforms are not concurrently addressed.

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Core Issues in India’s Land Governance

Issue Details

Unclear Land Titles India lacks a Torrens-style title system — most landholders have
presumptive, not guaranteed, ownership.

Legal Fragmentation Conflicting tenancy, ceiling, and land use laws across states
restrict leasing, conversion, and consolidation.

Insecure Tenure Fear of expropriation without fair compensation discourages

leasing, especially among women, tenants, and sharecroppers.

Gender Inequality Women own only 13% of agricultural land (NFHS-5), due to

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cultural and legal barriers despite inheritance rights.

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Informality and Over 90% of farm holdings are <2 ha, making mechanization,
Fragmentation irrigation, and productivity difficult.

Corruption and Rent- Complex rules (e.g., 40+ land classifications in Gujarat ceiling
seeking law) enable discretion and bribery.
s
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Digital Gaps While 90% of land records are reportedly digitized, many are
outdated, inaccurate, or not GIS-linked.
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Ongoing Initiatives: Strengths and Limitations

Initiative Key Actions Limitations

Digital India Land Digitization of textual and Digitization ≠ Accuracy;

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Records Modernisation spatial records, mutation legacy errors persist

Programme (DILRMP) automation, integration with
registration
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AgriStack Platform Integration of land data with Lack of integration with

agri-fintech for targeting PoS fertilizer data; risks of
subsidies, credit, insurance exclusion

Land Parcel Unique ID Unique geo-tagged ID to link Not legally enforceable in

(LUID) all land-based schemes disputes

Land Banks States pool land for Legal hurdles around

infrastructure and renewable acquisition and
projects transparency

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Budget 2024 ₹10,000 crore for land record No complementary effort
Announcements modernization and support to on legal harmonization or
states market reforms

Way Forward:

1. Enact Title Guarantee Law with state guarantee, replacing presumptive titles
2. Decriminalize tenancy, allow formal leasing with dispute protection
3. Simplify land ceiling, use, and conversion laws to remove identity-based and
subjective criteria
4. Create Unified Land Regulatory Authority to coordinate state efforts, issue model
laws, and ensure inter-state learning

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5. Integrate land records, property registration, and survey departments for seamless
record management

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6. Update textual and spatial records together, using satellite/GIS data with
community validation
7. Digitally link land ownership with AgriStack, e-KYC, crop insurance, and PM-
KISAN data
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8. Deploy blockchain-based tamper-proof records in pilot districts for secure
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transactions
9. Ensure joint spousal land titles and incentives for registering women landholders

8. Effects of Liberalization on the Economy, Changes in Industrial

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Policy and their Effects on Industrial Growth

8.1. Manmohan Singh’s contribution to India economy — LPG Reforms
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Context: India faced an unprecedented economic crisis in 1991 — foreign exchange

reserves were barely sufficient for two weeks of imports, the balance of payments had
collapsed, and inflation and fiscal deficit
Fr

had spiraled.
Under the leadership of Dr. Manmohan
Singh as Finance Minister, India introduced
Liberalisation, Privatisation, and
Globalisation (LPG) reforms,
fundamentally restructuring the economy
and moving away from a state-controlled
regime to a market-oriented economy.

Objectives of the LPG Reforms

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Component Objective

Liberalisation Reduce government control, dismantle License Raj, ease barriers to

business

Privatisation Reduce PSU dominance, attract private sector investment and efficiency

Globalisation Integrate Indian economy with the global economy, facilitate trade &
capital flows

Major Features of the 1991 Reforms

Area Key Reform Measures

Industrial Policy Abolished industrial licensing for most sectors; reduced reserved

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sectors for public sector from 17 to 8

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Trade Policy Cut import duties; devalued rupee to boost exports; promoted
export-oriented units

Foreign Allowed automatic FDI up to 51% in key sectors; liberalised foreign

Investment s
technology agreements
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Public Sector Disinvestment initiated; Navratna policy introduced; loss-making
Reforms PSUs opened to private participation

Financial Sector Reforms guided by Narasimham Committee: Reduced SLR and CRR,
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liberalised interest rates, improved regulation

Tax Reforms Rationalisation of direct taxes; introduction of VAT/GST in later

years
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Positive Impacts of LPG Reforms:

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Macroeconomic Stability

1. Forex Reserves rose from $1 billion (1991) to over $600 billion (2023).

2. Current account deficit better managed via export growth and capital inflows.

3. Shift from crisis economy to emerging global player.

Growth Acceleration

4. Average GDP growth jumped from ~3.5% to 6–8% in post-reform decades.

5. Growth driven by services, IT, telecom, and financial services.

Private Sector Emergence

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6. Reduced barriers enabled emergence of Indian giants like Infosys, Bharti Airtel,
Tata Consultancy.

7. Start-up culture and entrepreneurial ecosystems flourished post-2000.

Poverty Reduction

8. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MDPI) shows ~248 million lifted out of poverty
(NITI Aayog, 2024).

9. Growth translated into higher consumption and rural incomes, though unevenly.

Increased Competitiveness

10. Export sectors like textiles, pharma, auto became globally competitive.

11. Indian firms became MNCs (e.g., Tata, Mahindra, Adani).

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Integration with Global Economy

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12. India became part of WTO (1995), signed FTAs, and participated in global value
chains.

13. FDI inflows surged across sectors – telecom, services, retail, fintech, etc.
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en
Limitations and Criticisms

Area Concerns

Uneven Gains Growth benefited urban and skilled populations more; rural
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distress remained high

Jobless Growth Growth was services-led, not matched by commensurate

employment creation
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Deindustrialisation Manufacturing share stagnated; informalization increased

Risks
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Widening Inequality Gini index and consumption disparities rose post-reforms

Agriculture Neglected Reforms did not sufficiently address agriculture or

small/marginal farmers

FDI vs FPI Volatility High reliance on foreign portfolio investment (FPI) increased
vulnerability to global shocks

Legacy and Continuing Relevance

1. India’s aspirational growth in the 21st century was seeded by 1991 reforms.
2. LPG created institutional capacity for liberalisation in telecom, banking, power, and
roads.

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3. Provided the framework for subsequent reforms: GST, Insolvency and Bankruptcy
Code, labour codes, PLI schemes, etc.
4. India’s vision of becoming a $5 trillion economy and Viksit Bharat @ 2047 remains
built on foundations laid in 1991.

9-10. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc;

Investment Models
9-10.1. India wants to embrace nuclear power. To do it, it’ll need a lot of
time and money
Context: India’s electricity demand is projected to more than double by 2047, and the
country must meet this demand while reducing its dependence on fossil fuels. With over
75% of India’s electricity still derived from coal, the government has initiated an

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ambitious plan to install 100 GW of nuclear

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power capacity by 2047 — a critical part of
India’s energy transition strategy and its net-
zero by 2070 target.

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Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, in the
Union Budget 2025-26, pledged $2 billion for
en
nuclear research and proposed legal reforms
to attract private and international
investment into the nuclear sector.
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Why Nuclear Power?

Parameter Rationale for Nuclear

es

Low Emissions Zero direct CO₂ emissions during generation; essential for climate
mitigation
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Energy Security Reduces import dependence on fossil fuels

Baseload Stability Unlike solar and wind, nuclear is not intermittent and supports
grid stability

High Energy Small fuel volume produces large electricity output

Density

Current Status of India’s Nuclear Power Sector

Metric Details

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Nuclear share in electricity ~3%
(2024)

Installed Capacity ~7.5 GW

Reactors under 9 reactors (approx. 7 GW additional capacity)

construction

Target 100 GW by 2047 (as per FM's announcement)

Institutional Framework Public-sector-led: NPCIL under DAE; 2015 allowed limited

foreign technology

Key Challenges:

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Category Challenges

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Cost Nuclear power is 3x costlier than solar in India; long gestation
periods

Public Opposition Protests in Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu), Jaitapur (Maharashtra)

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over safety, land use
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Policy & Legal Atomic Energy Act limits private participation; land acquisition,
Hurdles liability laws

Technological Gaps Limited domestic expertise in new-generation reactors;

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dependency on imports

Radioactive Waste Lack of national policy on long-term storage of spent nuclear

fuel
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Recent Government Initiatives

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Initiative Details

Budget 2025-26 Allocation $2 billion pledged for R&D, SMR development,

infrastructure upgrades

Policy Reforms Proposed Legal amendments to attract private investment and

simplify licensing

Support for Small Modular Focus on low-cost, scalable units deployable closer to
Reactors (SMRs) demand centers

Strategic International Engagements with Russia, France, USA for technology

Partnerships transfer, safety protocols, fuel supply

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Land & Safety Norm Reforms Deliberations on resolving local opposition via
(Proposed) engagement, compensation, and safeguards

9-10.2. Role of BESS and Pumped Storage Hydropower in India's

Renewable Energy Push
Context: India has committed to achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based power
capacity by 2030 and reaching net-zero emissions by 2070. While renewable energy
sources like solar and wind are central to this transition, their intermittent and variable
nature poses challenges to grid stability,
reliability, and dispatchability.

To overcome these challenges, energy storage

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systems, particularly Battery Energy Storage

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Systems (BESS) and Pumped Storage
Hydropower (PSH), have emerged as critical
enablers of India’s green energy ambitions

s
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Why Energy Storage is Critical for India’s Energy Security

Dimension Contribution of BESS/PSH

Availability Ensures renewable energy is available even when the sun isn’t
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shining or wind isn’t blowing

Accessibility Enables decentralised power supply and strengthens last-mile

energy access
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Affordability Helps manage peak demand efficiently, reducing dependence

on costly fossil-fuel peakers
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Environmental Supports low-emission power generation and reduces

Acceptability curtailment of renewables

Comparative Roles of BESS and PSH

Parameter BESS PSH

Response Time Instant Minutes

Energy Duration Short to medium (1–6 hours) Long-duration (up to 10 hours

or more)

Deployment Time 6–12 months 4–5 years

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Environmental Requires critical minerals, but Land-intensive, ecological
Impact low land implications

Best Use Case Grid balancing, peaking, Seasonal balancing, bulk energy
microgrids storage

Policy Recommendations

Area Recommendation

Financing Leverage blended finance, concessional loans, and green

bonds for storage projects

Regulatory Framework Finalise a clear energy storage policy with pricing, grid

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norms, and service models

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Domestic Manufacturing Incentivise local battery cell and component production;
secure mineral supply chains

Innovation & R&D Promote next-gen technologies (e.g., sodium-ion, flow

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batteries, gravity storage)
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Institutional Partnerships Scale up PPPs like BRPL-GEAPP; include philanthropic
and international climate funds

PSH Site Mapping & Fast- Use remote sensing, land banks, and streamlined
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tracking clearances for PSH expansion

9-10.3. Shaping the port of the future- Vizhinjam Port

es

Context: Vizhinjam, a historic port town in Kerala with references dating back to the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century AD), has re-emerged on the global maritime
Fr

map. The inauguration of India’s first deepwater, greenfield, semi-automated container

transshipment port at Vizhinjam marks a strategic milestone in India's port infrastructure
development. This project,
executed under a tripartite Public-
Private Partnership (PPP) model
involving the Kerala Government,
Adani Ports, and the Union
Government, is set to redefine
India’s maritime logistics
landscape.

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Strategic Location & Maritime Advantage

1. Proximity to International Shipping Lanes: Located just 10 nautical miles from key
East-West maritime routes, Vizhinjam is ideally positioned to attract global shipping
lines.
2. Natural Depth Advantage: With a natural draft of 20 meters, it can host Ultra Large
Container Vessels (ULCVs) — a rare capacity among Indian ports.
3. De-risking Transshipment Dependence: Currently, over 75% of India’s transshipment
cargo is handled at foreign ports like Colombo, Singapore, and Klang. Vizhinjam offers a
strategic alternative, reducing time and cost.

Economic Significance

1. Transshipment Hub Potential: Already operational and outperforming projections with

6 lakh TEUs handled in its initial months, it has attracted global liners like MSC.

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2. Job Creation and Skill Development: Home to India's first all-women crane operator

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team trained under a PPP initiative.
3. Port-led Industrialisation: Envisioned Vizhinjam Development Zone and proposals
for Special Investment Region (SIR) aim to transform the region into an economic
powerhouse.
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4. Green Port Innovation: Vizhinjam is being developed as a bunkering hub for green
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fuels like hydrogen and ammonia; wave energy and hydrogen projects are also being
explored nearby.

Lessons from Shenzhen Model

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1. Transformation Blueprint: Like Vizhinjam, Shenzhen started as a small coastal village.

Post-1980, it evolved into a global manufacturing hub after being designated a Special
Economic Zone (SEZ).
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2. Parallel Potential: Vizhinjam, with timely policy intervention and SEZ integration, can
emerge as India’s maritime gateway to Southeast Asia and Europe, catalysing high-
value manufacturing, logistics, and clean energy industries
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9-10.4. Port Reforms in India – Towards Modern, Green, and

Competitive Maritime Infrastructure
Context: India’s maritime sector handles approximately 95% of its trade by volume and
about 70% by value. Despite this significance, operational inefficiencies, fragmented
processes, and legacy infrastructure have historically limited its global competitiveness.
Recognising the need for standardised, efficient, and green port systems, the Ministry of
Ports, Shipping and Waterways has launched a series of transformative port reform
measures in 2024–25, central to which is the “One Nation, One Port Process” initiative.

Key Reform Initiatives

One Nation, One Port Process

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1. Objective: Standardise and harmonise port documentation and operational protocols
across India’s major ports to reduce cost and time inefficiencies.

2. Impact:

a. Reduction of container documentation by 33% (from 143 to 96 docs)

b. Reduction of bulk cargo documentation by 29% (from 150 to 106 docs)

c. Aligned with Ease of Doing Business and PM Gati Shakti mission.

Sagar Ankalan – Logistics Port Performance Index (LPPI)

3. A data-driven framework to rank ports on efficiency, turnaround time, and global

competitiveness.

4. Enhances accountability and promotes competition among ports to raise performance

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standards.

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MAITRI App (Master Application for International Trade and Regulatory Interface)

5. Part of India’s Virtual Trade Corridor (VTC) ecosystem.

6. Facilitates:
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a. Seamless integration of AI and Blockchain in trade clearance and regulatory
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systems.

b. Cross-border trade alignment with UAE, BIMSTEC, and ASEAN nations.

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c. Trade documentation standardisation and real-time processing.

Bharat Ports Global Consortium

7. A multilateral partnership mechanism aimed at port capacity building, logistics

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facilitation, and geo-economic positioning within corridors like IMEEC (India-

Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor).
Fr

Infrastructure and Industrial Reforms

Area of Reform Action Steps/Announcements

Shipbuilding & Financial assistance for domestic shipyards; launch of

Shipbreaking Ship Breaking Credit Note Scheme

Cluster Development Capital infusion for setting up new shipbuilding

clusters

Maritime Development Fund Dedicated fund for long-term low-cost financing of port
and maritime projects

Infrastructure Harmonized Inclusion of large ships and port infrastructure to

Master List (HML) attract investment

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Sustainable Port Ecosystem Emphasis on smart, green ports – electrification, LNG
bunkering, hydrogen readiness

11. Science and Technology- Developments and their Applications

and Effects in Everyday Life
11.1. What is Elon Musk’s Starlink all about?
Context: Access to the internet is a critical enabler of development in the 21st century. While
India has made great strides in expanding digital infrastructure through 5G and BharatNet,
around 25% of rural households still lack reliable internet access. In this context, satellite-
based internet systems, especially Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellations like SpaceX’s

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Starlink, offer a transformative solution to bridge the digital divide in remote,
mountainous, and tribal regions where fiber or mobile connectivity is infeasible or

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expensive.

The recent distribution pacts signed by

Bharti Airtel and Reliance Jio with Starlink
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mark a key shift in India’s approach to
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satellite broadband, aligning commercial
partnerships with national digital inclusion
goals.
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What is Satellite Internet?

1. Satellite internet involves space-based transmission of data between ground terminals

es

and satellites orbiting Earth, connected via ground stations.

2. LEO satellites (500–2,000 km altitude) like Starlink offer:
a. Higher speeds (~100 Mbps)
Fr

b. Lower latency than traditional geostationary systems (but still higher than fiber
broadband)
c. Global coverage, particularly in areas with no terrestrial networks

Satellite Internet in India: Opportunities

Bridging the Digital Divide

1. Immediate deployment in rural, border, tribal, and hilly regions without waiting for
terrestrial rollouts.

2. Empowering rural telemedicine, online education, digital banking, and e-

governance.

Disaster-Resilient Communication

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3. In disaster-prone regions (e.g., Uttarakhand, North-East), satellite terminals offer fail-
safe internet when ground networks collapse.

Strategic Applications

4. Enabling defense communications, border surveillance, and critical installations in

remote areas.

Private Sector Synergy

5. Partnerships with Jio and Airtel can improve affordability, installation, and
maintenance via existing telecom infrastructure.

Challenges and Barriers

Category Issues

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Regulatory Delayed GMPCS license, pending security clearances, uncertainty

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under Telecom Act, 2023

Spectrum Allocation Debate on auction vs administrative allocation of satellite

spectrum – potential litigation

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Cost & Hardware cost ₹17,000–₹40,000 + monthly fees ~₹10,000 may be
Affordability unaffordable for rural users
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Data Sovereignty & Concerns over foreign ownership, encryption, and lawful
Privacy interception obligations
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Domestic Industry Indigenous satellite broadband providers (e.g., ISRO’s GSAT,

Lag Hughes, OneWeb India) may lag behind global LEO players

Way Forward
es

Recommendation Action

Set up a Satellite Internet To streamline approvals, align ministries, and

Regulatory Taskforce
Fr

evolve user-friendly licensing

Roll out pilot projects in Integrate Starlink/OneWeb terminals in schools,

aspirational districts PHCs, and rural panchayats

Create a pricing parity model Encourage operators to offer India-specific tariffs

or bundled prepaid services

Enable collaborative research Through joint ventures between ISRO, DRDO, IITs,
and satellite providers

11.2. Biosimilars and the need for a policy prescription

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Context: Biological drugs, or biologics, are advanced therapeutics derived from living
organisms using complex biotechnological processes. Unlike small-molecule drugs (like
paracetamol), biologics are typically composed of large proteins such as monoclonal
antibodies, and are highly specific in targeting disease-causing cells.

To reduce the cost burden of these high-priced drugs, many countries have turned to
biosimilars — drugs that are
highly similar, but not identical,
to an already approved reference
biologic. The aim is to improve
accessibility, affordability, and
competition in the
pharmaceutical market without

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compromising patient safety and
efficacy.

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What are Biosimilars?

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1. Biosimilars are biological products that are similar in quality, safety, and efficacy to an
already approved reference biologic, but not identical.
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2. Unlike generics of small-molecule drugs (which can be exactly replicated), biosimilars
are complex molecules and have variability inherent to biological manufacturing.

Scientific and Regulatory Challenges

hL

Challenge Explanation

Manufacturing Biosimilars must be produced in genetically engineered

Complexity living cells—highly sensitive to conditions.
es

No Access to Original Developers must create their own cell lines, unlike generics
Cell Lines which can be chemically reverse-engineered.
Fr

Clinical Trial Unlike generics, biosimilars must undergo extensive clinical

Requirements trials to prove safety & efficacy.

Lack of Bioequivalence Standard bioequivalence studies are insufficient due to

Framework biological variability.

Opaque Regulatory India lacks a binding legal framework for biosimilars;

Ecosystem current approval is based on non-binding guidelines.

Reputational Attacks by Originator companies often challenge biosimilars on safety

Innovators grounds, affecting doctor trust and uptake.

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Way Forward: Policy and Scientific Reforms

Focus Area Proposed Actions

Legal Framework Enact a dedicated Biosimilars Act to codify regulatory

norms and patient safeguards.

Regulatory Strengthening Upgrade CDSCO with technical capabilities, trained

reviewers, and dedicated biosimilar cells.

Post-Marketing Establish a robust pharmacovigilance system with real-time

Surveillance (PMS) adverse event tracking.

Public Trust & Promote transparent communication, case studies, and

Awareness doctor engagement programs.

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Pricing and Procurement Design reference pricing or tiered pricing models in public
Reform procurement to ensure affordability.

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Incentivise R&D and Use PLI schemes, tax incentives, and public-private biotech
Infrastructure parks for biosimilar development.

International
Harmonisation
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Align with WHO, EMA, and US FDA biosimilar guidelines
to access export markets.
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11.3. Graphene – The Wonder Material Powering the Future
hL

Context: Graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, is often
hailed as a "wonder material" due to its extraordinary properties:

I. 200 times stronger than steel,

es

II. highly conductive (both electrical and

thermal),
Fr

III. lightweight and flexible, and

IV. biocompatible.

Discovered in 2004, graphene is now poised

to revolutionize electronics, aerospace, energy storage, construction, healthcare, and
more. The February 2024 breakthrough by a US-China research team in developing a
functional graphene-based semiconductor has further accelerated global interest in
graphene applications.

Strategic Importance and Application Areas

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Property Strategic Application Area

High conductivity Flexible electronics, semiconductors, sensors

Mechanical strength Aerospace, automotive, super-concrete, defence

Surface area Supercapacitors, hydrogen storage

Biocompatibility Targeted drug delivery, biomedical devices

Government Initiatives (Recent and Proposed)

1. Graphene-Aurora Program: Boost engineering capabilities.

2. Graphene Production Units: To be set up in PPP mode.
3. IIT-Kharagpur: Developed oil-spill absorbing graphene technology.

S
4. Super-Concrete Research: Integrated into construction policy discussions.

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5. India Innovation Centre for Graphene: Established by Digital University Kerala, Tata
Steel, and C-MET

Way Forward:
s
1. Launch a National Graphene Mission with time-bound targets.
en
2. Set up Graphene Industrial Parks on the lines of semiconductor clusters.
3. Include graphene in PLI schemes for electronics, defence, and construction.

11.4. Why scientists are installing underwater telescopes to detect

hL

‘ghost particles
Context: Neutrinos, often called “ghost particles”, are one of the most elusive and intriguing
particles in the universe. They are electrically neutral, extremely light, and weakly
es

interacting with matter, making them

difficult to detect. First predicted by
Wolfgang Pauli in 1931 and
Fr

experimentally confirmed in 1959,

neutrinos have become critical to
understanding fundamental physics,
astrophysics, and cosmology.

Major Neutrino Observatories

➢ IceCube Neutrino Observatory – Antarctica (in ice)

➢ KM3NeT (Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope) – Mediterranean Sea (in deep

water)

Why Are Neutrinos Important to Science?

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Astrophysical Importance

1. Messengers from distant cosmos: High-energy neutrinos originate from violent

cosmic events like supernovae, black hole mergers, gamma-ray bursts, and
colliding stars.

2. Dust-penetrating: Unlike light or X-rays, neutrinos can travel through dense regions
of space, providing data from obscured parts of galaxies (e.g., Milky Way’s center).

3. Help in probing origins of cosmic rays and mechanisms of extreme astrophysical

phenomena.

Role in Particle Physics

4. Their oscillation and mass challenge the Standard Model of physics and may

S
provide clues to physics beyond the Standard Model.

5. Neutrinos are a potential window into understanding dark matter and CP violation

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(matter-antimatter imbalance).

Earth Sciences

s
6. Used in geoneutrino studies to understand radioactive decay inside the Earth’s
core, offering insights into Earth’s heat budget.
en
12. Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology;
Indigenization of Technology and Developing New Technology
hL

12.1. Why are Indian firms racing to build local AI?

Context: The IndiaAI Mission, launched by the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology (MeitY) in March 2024, marks a strategic step towards self-reliance in
es

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and global

AI leadership. With a budgetary
outlay of ₹10,371.92 crore, the mission
Fr

aligns with the twin goals of:

I. “Making AI in India” (self-

sufficiency in AI infrastructure
and foundational models), and

II. “Making AI Work for India”

(AI-driven inclusive development and innovation).

Amidst the rising global competition in generative AI, the mission seeks to position India as
a responsible, inclusive, and innovation-led AI power

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Objectives of the Mission

1. Build India-specific AI foundational models and datasets.

2. Democratise access to computational power for startups and academia.
3. Create a regulatory and safety framework for responsible AI deployment.
4. Boost AI research, skilling, and innovation ecosystems, especially in Tier-II and Tier-III
cities.
5. Enable global competitiveness through indigenous AI capabilities

Key Pillars of the Mission

Pillar Objective

AI Kosha (IndiaAI To collect and share non-personal, India-specific datasets

Datasets Platform) for training culturally relevant AI models.

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Common Compute Access to 14,000+ GPUs for AI model training via

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Facility empanelled data centers for startups and researchers.

IndiaAI Innovation Development of domain-specific foundational models in

Centre health, agriculture, law, etc.

AI Application s
Foster AI use-case creation and prototype-to-product
en
Development translation across sectors.

AI Safety Institute of Ensure AI risk mitigation, explainability, safety testing,

India and regulatory research.
hL

IndiaAI FutureSkills Create AI Labs in smaller cities, and design skilling

programs to expand AI-ready human capital.

Startup Financing Provide financial support to promising AI-based startups

es

Scheme and early-stage innovators.

Fr

Challenges and Way Forward

Challenge Suggested Solution

High cost of AI compute Expand GPU partnerships; incentivize cloud

infrastructure resource development.

Data privacy and AI misuse risks Empower AI Safety Institute and enact robust AI
governance laws.

Skilling divide between urban Accelerate FutureSkills Labs and AI education in

and rural areas schools/colleges.

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Dependence on foreign AI models Support India’s own foundation model
and tools development.

Fragmented research ecosystem Create a National AI Research Grid and promote

public-private R&D.

12.2. Jayant Vishnu Narlikar – His Contribution to Science

Context: Professor Jayant Vishnu Narlikar (1938–2025) was one of India’s most
distinguished astrophysicists and science communicators, renowned globally for his
pioneering work in cosmology, especially in proposing an alternative model of the
universe that challenged the widely accepted Big Bang theory. He was also a prominent
institution builder and advocate

S
for popularizing science in India.

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Scientific Contributions

The Hoyle–Narlikar Theory of

Gravity

1. Developed with Fred

s
en
Hoyle, the theory
combined general
relativity with Mach's
principle, proposing that all matter in the universe contributes to gravitational
hL

interaction at any point.

2. It introduced the concept of continuous creation of matter, enabling the Steady-

State Theory to remain consistent despite the universe’s expansion.
es

3. This model challenged Einstein’s general relativity, suggesting that gravity was
influenced not just by nearby objects, but by the distribution of matter across the
entire universe.
Fr

Steady-State Theory

4. While the Big Bang suggests a universe that originated at a specific point in time, the
steady-state theory, advocated by Narlikar, posited that the universe is eternal and
unchanging in its overall properties.

5. The theory relied on continuous matter creation to maintain a constant average

density despite expansion.

6. This challenged the philosophical discomfort many had with the idea of “creation
from nothing” inherent in the Big Bang.

Contributions to Theoretical Physics

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7. Modified Einstein’s field equations to account for the creation of matter.

8. Offered elegant mathematical formulations still respected in academic circles.

9. Contributed to alternative cosmologies, offering plurality in scientific thought at a

time when Big Bang orthodoxy was rising.

Institutional and Academic Leadership

Institution Role

Inter-University Centre for Founder-Director (1988); made it a world-class

Astronomy and Astrophysics research institution in India.
(IUCAA), Pune

Tata Institute of Fundamental Served as a faculty member early in his career.

S
Research (TIFR)

Indian Institute of Science Honorary professor and science mentor.

IA
Education and Research (IISER),
Pune

Science Popularization
s
en
1. Authored numerous science fiction and non-fiction books in English and Marathi to
popularize astrophysics among the Indian public.
2. Contributed to NCERT textbooks, delivered lectures to school and college students,
hL

and was a visible advocate for rational thinking and scientific inquiry.
3. Known for making complex cosmological concepts accessible to laypersons.
es

12.3. India conducts maiden flight-trials of stratospheric airship

platform in Madhya Pradesh
Fr

Context: Stratospheric airship platforms are lighter-than-air aerial vehicles designed to

operate in the stratosphere (~20 km altitude) for long-duration
missions. On May 3, 2025, India, through the Defence Research
and Development Organisation (DRDO), successfully
conducted the maiden flight trial of an indigenous stratospheric
airship prototype, joining a select group of countries possessing
such cutting-edge technology.

What Are Stratospheric Airship Platforms?

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1. Definition: High-altitude, helium/hydrogen-filled, lighter-than-air vehicles designed to
hover or maneuver in the stratosphere for extended periods.
2. Altitude: Operate at ~17–20 km above the Earth, far above commercial air traffic and
weather systems.
3. Endurance: Can stay aloft for days, weeks, or even months, powered by solar energy or
onboard fuel systems.
4. Stability: Offers quasi-geostationary positioning over a region, ideal for persistent
observation.

Significance for India

Strategic Military Utility

I. ISR Enhancement: Boosts Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR)

S
capability across border and maritime domains.

II. Persistent Surveillance: Ideal for monitoring hostile movements, terrorist

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infiltrations (e.g., post-Pahalgam attack), and transborder activities.

III. Alternative to Satellites: Cheaper and quickly deployable compared to launching

space-based assets.
s
Disaster Management and Civil Use
en
IV. Early Warning Systems for cyclones, forest fires, or floods.

V. Telecommunication Relay in remote or disrupted areas.

hL

VI. Environmental Monitoring: Useful for climate data, atmospheric sampling, and
pollution tracking.

12.4. Centre’s new BioE3 policy: How can biotechnology be harnessed

es

for economic development?

Context: Synthetic biology is an emerging interdisciplinary field that involves designing
Fr

and constructing new biological entities or systems for useful purposes. It leverages tools
like genome editing, AI, bioinformatics, and precision fermentation to develop
sustainable, efficient, and scalable alternatives to conventional industrial and environmental
processes.

India’s BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy,

Environment, and Employment) policy,
launched in 2024, represents a landmark
move toward industrialising biology to
achieve green growth, economic
competitiveness, and job creation.

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What is Synthetic Biology?

Definition: The science of re-engineering natural biological systems or designing new ones for
specific tasks.

Applications:

1. Biomanufacturing: Smart proteins, enzymes, biofuels, biodegradable plastics.

2. Precision agriculture: Climate-resilient crops.
3. Medical biotechnology: Lab-grown organs, biosensors, precision biotherapeutics.
4. Environmental solutions: CO₂ capture using algae/microbes, bioremediation.

BioE3 Policy: Key Features

Aspect Details

S
Vision Transition to bio-based manufacturing to reduce environmental
footprint

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Objectives Foster sustainable industry, create jobs, and spur innovation

Hubs to be set up Biomanufacturing hubs for enzymes, smart proteins, functional

foods, etc.
s
en
Sectors Targeted Agriculture, health, energy, environment, marine, and space

Institutional Led by Dept. of Biotechnology with support from 15+

Mechanism ministries
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Way Forward

1. Legislative and regulatory reforms: A single-window clearance for biotech products.

es

2. Public investment in R&D and infra: Expansion of DBT and BIRAC funding.
3. Human capital development: Establish BioE3 skill labs in Tier-2/3 cities.
4. PPP & Global Alliances: Encourage partnerships with EU, Japan, and US bio-clusters.
Fr

5. Ecosystem development: Formation of BioE3 Startup Mission and dedicated

incubators.

12.5. DRDO's Hyderabad arm holds successful testing of scramjet

engine for over 1,000 seconds
Context: Hypersonic weapons represent the next frontier in aerospace and defense,
capable of flying at speeds greater than Mach 5 (approx. 6,100 km/h) and delivering
precise, high-speed strikes while evading conventional air-defense systems. Central to
their development is the scramjet engine — an air-breathing propulsion system that
enables sustained flight at hypersonic velocities.

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India, through DRDO and its arm
DRDL (Hyderabad), is making
significant strides in indigenous
hypersonic technology, recently
demonstrating a 1,000-second ground
test of a long-duration Active-Cooled
Scramjet Subscale Combustor.

What is Hypersonic Weapon

Technology?

1. Definition: Weapons that fly at

speeds > Mach 5 (5x speed of sound).
2. Types:

S
a. Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGVs) – launched by rockets, glide at high
altitudes.

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b. Hypersonic Cruise Missiles (HCMs) – powered by scramjet engines throughout
the flight

What is a Scramjet Engine?

Feature Details
s
en
Full Form Supersonic Combustion Ramjet

Function Air-breathing engine that compresses incoming supersonic air

hL

without any moving parts and sustains combustion

Key No onboard oxidizer needed (unlike rockets) — uses atmospheric

Characteristic oxygen
es

Challenge Maintaining combustion at very high airflow speeds (like lighting a

candle in a hurricane)

Use in Missiles Enables sustained hypersonic cruise, reduced weight, extended range,
Fr

and speed

Challenges in Hypersonic Development

1. Thermal Management: Requires advanced materials and cooling techniques to

withstand extreme heat.
2. Precision Control: Navigation and maneuverability at hypersonic speed are difficult.
3. Testing Infrastructure: Needs dedicated wind tunnels and high-fidelity simulations.
4. International Regulation: No clear global treaties yet governing hypersonic weapons.

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12.6. DRDO, IIT-Delhi demonstrate free-space quantum secure
communication over 1 km
Context: Quantum Secure Communication (QSC) leverages the principles of quantum
mechanics—specifically quantum entanglement and superposition—to create theoretically
unbreakable encryption systems. In a significant milestone for India, the DRDO-Industry-
Academia Centre of Excellence (DIA-
CoE) at IIT Delhi has successfully
demonstrated free-space quantum
communication over 1 km, marking
India's entry into the global quantum
cybersecurity era.

S
What is Quantum Secure

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Communication?

1. Quantum Secure Communication (QSC) enables the distribution of encryption keys

using quantum states of photons, primarily through a process known as Quantum Key
Distribution (QKD). s
en
2. Two major types:
a. Prepare-and-Measure QKD: Uses known photon states.
b. Entanglement-Based QKD: Uses pairs of entangled photons, which are more
secure and resistant to device vulnerabilities
hL

Key Features and Benefits

Feature Explanation
es

Unbreakable Security Based on the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle — any

eavesdropping attempt disturbs the quantum state and is
detectable.
Fr

Free-Space Avoids need for expensive fibre-optic cables, especially useful

Communication in rugged or urban terrain.

Tamper-Evident Any interception attempt is automatically flagged.

Communication

Dual-Use Applications Defence, banking, telecom, satellite communications, and

national critical infrastructure.

Recent Indian Breakthroughs

Year Breakthrough Details

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2022 Vindhyachal–Prayagraj Link India's first intercity quantum link using dark
optical fibre.

2024 100 km Optical Fibre QKD Quantum key distribution over 100 km using
entangled photons.

2025 1 km Free-Space Entangled Achieved 240 bits/sec key rate and <7% error rate
QKD at IIT Delhi.

Challenges

1. Scalability: Moving from lab to large-scale deployment.

2. Atmospheric Disruptions: Weather and environmental interference in free-space QKD.
3. Hardware Standardisation: Lack of mature, commercially available quantum hardware.

S
4. Regulatory Framework: Need for quantum-era encryption and cybersecurity standards

IA
Way Forward

1. National Quantum Mission: Should integrate quantum communication research with

satellite and terrestrial systems.
s
2. Quantum Internet: Invest in long-distance entangled networks and satellite QKD.
en
3. PPP Model: Collaborate with startups and global quantum firms for faster translation to
industry.
4. Human Capital: Strengthen quantum literacy and skilling in cryptography, optics, and
quantum physics.
hL

12.7. On quantum technology, India has much to do. Global

partnerships hold the key
es

Context: Quantum technology — comprising quantum computing, quantum

communication, quantum sensing, and materials — is poised to redefine technological
capabilities in the 21st century. For India,
Fr

indigenizing quantum technologies is not

just about scientific advancement but also
about safeguarding strategic autonomy,
digital sovereignty, and securing a place
in the evolving techno-geopolitical order.

Why Indigenization of Quantum

Technology Matters for India

Strategic Domain Relevance

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National Security Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) offers unbreakable encryption
for defence and cyber-security.

Economic Quantum economy projected to reach $100 billion by 2040; crucial

Sovereignty for future GDP drivers.

Geopolitics Quantum leadership defines global tech norms; limited access to

global supply chains makes self-reliance essential.

Technological Reliance on imported cryogenic systems, lasers, and fabrication

Dependence units makes India vulnerable to export restrictions.

India’s Current Position

S
Parameter Status

IA
National Quantum Budget: ₹6000 crore ($735 million); 8-year roadmap covering
Mission (2023) quantum computing, materials, communication & sensing.

Private Sector ~$30 million — far below US ($6940 million) & Australia ($661
Investment million).
s
en
Quantum Startups 53 (vs China’s 63, US’s 300).

Skill Gaps Acute shortage of quantum engineers; <3% research gets

industry funding.
hL

Critical Dependencies Import dependence on indium, cryogenic components, laser

systems.
es

Key Challenges in Indigenization

1. Low private capital infusion into R&D and product development.

Fr

2. Limited fabrication facilities for quantum-grade chips and materials.

3. Fragmented academia-industry-government collaboration.

4. Export controls under regimes like Wassenaar Arrangement limit technology access.

5. Lack of access to global standardisation and interoperability platforms.

Strategic Pillars for Indigenization

Domestic Capability Building

1. Establish dedicated quantum fabrication and cryogenic R&D hubs.

2. Strengthen National Quantum Mission via partnerships with IITs, IISc, IISERs.

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3. Create an Advanced Materials Supply Chain Authority for critical raw materials.

Workforce and Talent Development

4. Launch Quantum Engineering and Information Science programs across

institutions.

5. Set up Quantum Technology Centres of Excellence in T-Hub, BITS Pilani, IISc, etc.

International Strategic Collaborations

6. Quantum Entanglement Exchange: Facilitate Indian researcher access to US/Europe

facilities.

7. Expand TRUST (Transforming the Relationship Utilizing Strategic Technology)

with US.

S
8. Promote trilateral initiatives (India-US-South Korea) via incubation hubs: T-Hub,

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Seoul Startup Hub, Convergence Accelerator (US).

Industry and Startup Ecosystem Integration

9. Leverage platforms like INDUS-X to drive cross-border quantum entrepreneurship.

s
10. Offer co-funding, risk-sharing and technology acceleration grants.
en
11. Create quantum innovation clusters in Hyderabad, Bengaluru, and Pune.

Quantum Standards and Diplomacy

hL

12. Proactively engage in international standard-setting bodies on quantum

interoperability.

13. Advocate for quantum cyber norms at multilateral forums like G20, Quad, and
es

BRICS.

Indigenization of quantum technology is critical to India’s pursuit of Atmanirbhar Bharat in

emerging technologies. Strategic investments, global collaborations, and ecosystem
Fr

development must converge to ensure India does not just remain a participant but emerges
as a shaper of the quantum future.

12.8. National Science Day: What is Raman Effect, what are some of its
uses
Context: February 28 is observed as National Science Day in India to commemorate the
discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman in 1928. This
pioneering discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 — the only Nobel
Prize in science awarded to an Indian working in India to date. His work laid the
foundation for India’s scientific awakening and global recognition in modern physics.

What is the Raman Effect?

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The Raman Effect refers to the phenomenon where light changes its wavelength when it is
scattered by a medium.

1. When a beam of
monochromatic light
passes through a
transparent material, most
of it emerges unchanged,
but a small fraction
scatters with a different
wavelength (and hence,
colour).

2. This change occurs due to the exchange of energy between photons and molecules

S
of the material.

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Applications of the Raman Effect

Field Application

Chemistry
s
Molecular structure analysis, bond identification
en
Forensics Non-invasive detection of narcotics and explosives

Pharmaceuticals Quality control, compound characterization

hL

Nuclear science Remote detection of hazardous materials

Material Science Studying properties of paints, polymers, nanomaterials

Medicine Early cancer detection using Raman spectroscopy of tissues

es

Other Scientific Contributions of C.V. Raman

Fr

Contribution Details

Acoustics of Indian Scientific analysis of sound in tabla, veena, mridangam

instruments

Optics and light scattering Work on diffraction, interference, and reflection

phenomena

Crystallography Studied structure of crystals and diamond

Raman-Nath theory Developed with N.S. Nath, explaining diffraction of light by

acoustic waves

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Institution building Founder of Raman Research Institute, helped shape Indian
Academy of Sciences

12.9. Why Genome India Project matters

Context: The Genome India Project (GIP) is a national initiative launched in 2020 aimed at
mapping the genetic diversity of the Indian population. It is the first large-scale,
population-based genome sequencing project undertaken in India and seeks to lay the
foundation for precision medicine,
population genetics, and disease
prediction models tailored to Indian
demographics.

S
The first phase, now completed, has

IA
sequenced the genomes of 10,000
individuals from 83 distinct population
groups, generating an invaluable
database for future research in healthcare,
evolution, and genetic science. s
en
Objectives of the GIP

1. To create an indigenous reference genome for Indian populations.

hL

2. To enable development of population-specific, precision healthcare solutions.

3. To facilitate research on genetic predisposition to diseases.
4. To contribute to global efforts in human population genomics.
es

5. To build capacity in bioinformatics and genome analysis within India.

Key Significance of the Genome India Project

Fr

Health and Medicine

Area Contribution
Personalised Enables diagnosis and treatment tailored to an individual's
Medicine genetic makeup.
Rare Diseases Helps identify rare, population-specific genetic disorders
and develop therapies.
Population-Specific Useful in developing drugs for common Indian diseases like
Drugs diabetes and cardiovascular disorders.
Predictive Facilitates early detection and prevention through risk
Healthcare profiling.
Epidemiology and Public Health

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1. Helps in identifying genetic patterns of disease susceptibility in specific regions or
communities.

2. Aids in formulating targeted health interventions and customising

vaccination/immunisation strategies.

3. Crucial in combating diseases with genetic predispositions (e.g., thalassemia, sickle

cell anemia).

Evolutionary and Population Studies

Area Insight
Ancestry Traces lineage, social mobility, and intermixing of communities.
Mapping
Migration Reconstructs historical movement and settlement of populations

S
Patterns in the Indian subcontinent.
Adaptation Examines how different populations genetically adapted to local

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Studies environments (climate, altitude, diet).
Strategic Autonomy and Global Contribution

1. India can reduce reliance on Western genomic references that underrepresent South
Asian diversity. s
en
2. Enhances India’s position in global genomic research collaborations (e.g., GA4GH).

3. Contributes to equity in science, ensuring India’s representation in global databases

like the Human Genome Project.
hL

13. Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics,

Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to
Intellectual Property Rights
es

13.1. A beginner’s guide to quantum computing

Fr

Context: Quantum Computing represents a paradigm shift in computational capability,

leveraging the principles of quantum
mechanics to solve complex problems
intractable for classical computers.
From cryptography and drug discovery
to materials science and climate
modeling, the implications are vast and
transformative.

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Core Principles of Quantum Computing

Principle Explanation

Qubits Quantum bits that exist in a state of 0, 1, or both (superposition).

Superposition A qubit can be in multiple states simultaneously, enabling parallel

computation.

Entanglement Linked qubits influence each other instantaneously, even at a

distance.

Quantum Helps to amplify correct outcomes and cancel out incorrect ones.
Interference

S
Key Milestones in Quantum Computing

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Year Milestone Details

1982 Feynman’s Idea Concept of simulating quantum systems with quantum

computers.

1994 Shor’s
sShowed quantum computers can factor large numbers,
en
Algorithm threatening RSA encryption.

2019 Google Achieved quantum supremacy—200 sec task vs. 10,000 years
Sycamore on supercomputer.
hL

2019 IBM Q System World’s first circuit-based commercial quantum computer.

One

2024– Google Willow First scalable chip with error-corrected qubits that improve
es

25 with scale.
Fr

Applications of Quantum Computing

Sector Use Cases

Defence Secure communications, breaking traditional encryption (via Shor’s

algorithm).

Pharma Drug discovery through molecular modeling.

Climate Science Accurate modeling of climate systems and carbon capture

materials.

Finance Portfolio optimization, risk analysis.

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Artificial Accelerated training of ML models through quantum-enhanced
Intelligence optimization.

Present Limitations

1. Decoherence: Qubits lose their quantum state quickly due to environmental noise.
2. Error Rates: Quantum gates are prone to high error, requiring quantum error
correction.
3. Scalability: Millions of stable qubits needed for real-world tasks.
4. Cost & Complexity: Cooling systems (near absolute zero), maintenance, and hardware
design are prohibitively expensive

13.2. Axiom-4 Mission: What Shubhanshu Shukla’s trip to ISS means

S
for India’s space program

IA
Context: On May 3, 2025, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla embarked on a historic
voyage to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard the Axiom-4 mission, in
partnership with NASA and SpaceX. His participation marks a new era in India’s space
programme — particularly in
human spaceflight — and
s
en
strengthens India's global scientific
and technological standing,
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What is the Axiom-4 Mission?

1. Axiom-4 is a privately
organized crewed mission to
es

the ISS, spearheaded by Axiom Space in collaboration with NASA and SpaceX.
2. The mission carried a four-member international crew aboard SpaceX’s Crew Dragon
capsule, launched via the Falcon 9 rocket.
Fr

3. Shubhanshu Shukla’s presence on the mission symbolizes India’s active participation

in global space collaboration, beyond symbolic representation

Strategic and Scientific Significance for India

Kickstarting Human Spaceflight Ambitions

1. The mission serves as a precursor to India’s Gaganyaan Mission, expected by 2027.

2. Provides hands-on training and exposure to India’s astronaut corps and engineers,
reducing learning curve for future crewed missions.

Technology Transfer & Indigenization

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3. ISRO’s equal partnership role throughout the Axiom-4 mission — from planning to
troubleshooting — has facilitated technology absorption, especially in:

a. Life-support systems

b. Re-entry mechanics

c. Flight safety and redundancies

Enhancing Strategic Autonomy in Space

4. Human spaceflight is a strategic asset, akin to nuclear or cyber capabilities.

5. Demonstrates India's commitment to non-exclusionary access to outer space,

countering the space race dynamics of US-China dominance.

Implications for ISRO and Gaganyaan

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Parameter Axiom-4 Contribution

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Mission Validation of mission architecture, astronaut preparation,
Readiness emergency response.

Technical Simulations, docking protocols, orbital manoeuvres, long-duration

Learnings
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microgravity impact studies.
en
Global Integration Establishes India as a reliable collaborator in future ISS operations
and lunar missions.

Institutional Strengthens inter-agency coordination (DRDO, ISRO, INSPACe) for

hL

Capacity crewed missions.

13.3. ISRO Docks SpaDeX Satellites in Space: What was done and how
es

– and why does it matter?

Fr

Context: On January 16, 2025, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully
demonstrated space docking for the first time through the SpaDeX (Space Docking
Experiment) mission. With this, India
became the fourth country globally —
after the USA, Russia, and China — to
develop and validate indigenous docking
capabilities in space.

This milestone is crucial for India’s long-

term goals in human spaceflight, lunar
sample return, and space station
development, and positions ISRO at the
forefront of cutting-edge space technology.

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What is Space Docking?

Docking refers to the process of:

1. Bringing two fast-moving spacecraft into the same orbit,

2. Precisely aligning them, and

3. Physically joining them using a docking interface, either autonomously or manually.

It is essential for:

1. Assembling space stations,

2. Resupplying them with materials or astronauts,

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3. Conducting modular missions (e.g., sample return or human missions to the Moon or
Mars).

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Key Achievements of SpaDeX Mission

Parameter Details

Satellites Involved
s
Two 220-kg satellites (SDX01 "Chaser" and SDX02 "Target")
en
Phases of Held at progressive points: 5 km → 1.5 km → 500 m → 225 m →
Rendezvous 15 m → 3 m

Docking Mechanism Indigenous Bharatiya Docking System (androgynous, motor-

hL

driven)

Sensors Used Laser Range Finder, Rendezvous Sensor, Proximity & Docking
Sensor
es

Navigation System Custom processor based on satellite navigation with potential for
autonomy
Fr

Post-Docking Commands issued to satellites as a composite body; electrical

Capabilities power-sharing underway

Strategic and Scientific Significance

Precursor to Future Missions

1. Gaganyaan (Human Spaceflight): Docking is critical for rescue, crew transfer, and
emergency modules.

2. Chandrayaan-4 (Lunar Sample Return): Requires orbital rendezvous between

ascender, transfer, and re-entry modules.

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3. Bharatiya Antariksh Station: India’s planned space station (by 2035) will be
assembled through successive module dockings.

Indigenous Capability Development

4. Demonstrates technological self-reliance in space operations.

5. Builds competence in autonomous orbital operations, which are high-risk and high-
precision.

6. Reduces dependency on foreign docking standards like IDSS.

Global Standing and Strategic Autonomy

7. SpaDeX places India in an elite group of nations with independent docking

technology.

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8. Enhances India’s role in future international collaborations, joint missions, and

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commercial crew delivery services.

13.4. Why China’s recent nuclear fusion breakthrough is significant

Context: Nuclear fusion — the process that powers the Sun and stars — is considered the
s
‘holy grail’ of clean energy. It promises virtually limitless, zero-emission electricity using
en
abundant fuels like deuterium and tritium, without long-lived radioactive waste.

Recent developments, such as China’s EAST Tokamak maintaining plasma stability for
over 1,000 seconds, and net energy
hL

gains achieved in the US, signal a

potential paradigm shift in global
energy solutions.
es

What is Nuclear Fusion?

1. Fusion involves combining light

Fr

atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen

isotopes) into a heavier nucleus (like helium), releasing immense energy.
2. Requires extremely high temperatures (~150 million °C) and plasma state of matter.
3. Plasma is confined using magnetic fields (magnetic confinement) or powerful lasers
(inertial confinement).

Why Fusion Energy Matters

Aspect Fusion Advantage

Energy Output 1 gram of fusion fuel can produce energy equal to 8 tonnes of coal

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Fuel Availability Uses isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium, tritium) available in seawater
and lithium

Safety No chain reactions, meltdown risk, or long-lived radioactive waste

Environment Zero greenhouse gas emissions

Strategic Critical for energy independence and clean growth

Autonomy

Challenges in Realising Fusion

Challenge Explanation

Plasma Stability Maintaining controlled fusion requires stabilizing ultra-hot

S
plasma for long durations

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Input Energy vs Output Reactors currently consume more power than they generate
Energy

Material Limitations Reactor walls and materials must withstand extreme heat
s
and neutron bombardment
en
Cost and Scalability High capital investment, long gestation periods

Fusion Reactor Design Requires cutting-edge cryogenics, superconductors, and AI

Complexity for control
hL

13.5. Ahmedabad Air India plane crash: How DNA identification

works
es

#Context: DNA identification has emerged as the gold standard for verifying individual
identity, especially during mass fatality incidents, criminal investigations, paternity
Fr

disputes, and disaster victim identification. It is particularly critical when traditional

methods such as visual identification or fingerprinting are not viable due to decomposition,
burns, or dismemberment — as seen in cases like plane crashes, bombings, and natural
disasters.

What is DNA and Why is it Unique?

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1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the hereditary material found in almost all human
cells.
2. Except for identical twins,
every individual has a
unique DNA sequence,
making it a powerful tool
for identification.
3. DNA is stored in both the
nucleus (nuclear DNA) and
mitochondria
(mitochondrial DNA) of
cells.

Major DNA Analysis Techniques

S
Technique Key Features When Used Limitations

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1. STR (Short Analyzes highly Gold standard for Requires high-quality
Tandem Repeat) variable repeating DNA ID; used in nuclear DNA
Analysis DNA sequences forensics and
s paternity testing
en
2. Mitochondrial Analyzes When nuclear DNA Less specific than STR;
DNA (mtDNA) maternally is degraded; can't distinguish
Analysis inherited DNA matches maternal between siblings of
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found in relatives same maternal line

mitochondria

3. Y-Chromosome Analyzes STRs on Matches male Only useful for

Analysis the Y chromosome victims to male biological males
es

(paternally relatives (father,

inherited) brother, uncle)
Fr

4. SNP (Single Analyzes single Best for highly Lower discrimination

Nucleotide base pair changes degraded DNA; power than STR
Polymorphism) across the genome can use personal
Analysis items (toothbrush)

Applications of DNA Identification

1. Disaster Victim Identification (DVI): Air India crash (2025), Tsunami (2004), 9/11
attacks.

2. Criminal investigations: Sexual assault, homicide, missing persons.

3. Paternity/maternity testing: Legal and immigration-related cases.

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4. Anthropological and genetic research: Identification of ancient remains.

Challenges in Implementation

Challenge Details

Degradation Heat, humidity, time delay post-mortem degrade DNA

Technical Infrastructure High-end labs and trained personnel required

Ethical & Legal Issues Consent, privacy, and use of familial DNA

Reference Sample Collection Family may be unavailable or unwilling to cooperate

13.6. Scientists find potential biosignatures in faraway exoplanet. What

S
does this discovery mean for extraterrestrial life?

IA
Context: The quest to determine whether we are alone in the universe has driven decades of
astronomical exploration. A key frontier in this pursuit is the identification of
biosignatures — chemical indicators that suggest the possible presence of life. The recent
detection of dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and related gases in the atmosphere of exoplanet
K2-18b, 120 light-years away, has
s
en
reignited scientific excitement around
extraterrestrial life.
hL

What Are Biosignatures?

Biosignatures are any substances —

elements, molecules, isotopes — or
es

phenomena that provide scientific

evidence of past or present life. They can include:
Fr

I. Atmospheric Gases (e.g., oxygen, methane, DMS, CO₂ in specific ratios)

II. Surface Features (e.g., microbial mats, stromatolites)

III. Isotopic Ratios typical of biological processes

IV. Spectral Signatures from remote sensing instruments like telescopes

Significance of Biosignature Research

Astrobiology Advancement

I. Leads to the emergence of astrobiology as a new interdisciplinary science involving

physics, biology, chemistry, and astronomy.

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II. Enhances understanding of how life originates and evolves under diverse planetary
conditions.

Scientific and Strategic Implications

III. Drives innovation in remote sensing, spectroscopy, and deep-space exploration

technologies.

IV. Strengthens India’s strategic and scientific role in planetary science, with missions
like Aditya-L1 and Gaganyaan laying groundwork.

Expands Our Understanding of Life

V. Helps redefine what environments can support life — possibly including non-
Earth-like chemistries.

S
13.7. What are neural networks and why are they significant?

IA
Context: Neural Networks, or Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), are at the core of the
Artificial Intelligence (AI) revolution shaping the 21st-century knowledge economy.
Mimicking the functioning of the human brain, they enable machines to learn from data,
recognize patterns, and make decisions autonomously. Neural networks form the
s
foundation of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) models — including Large
en
Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT — which have wide-ranging implications for
governance, economy, healthcare,
agriculture, and national security.
hL

What are Neural Networks?

1. Neural networks are

es

computational models inspired

by the biological neural
structures of the human brain.
Fr

They consist of layers of interconnected nodes ("neurons") that process input data and
derive meaningful output.
2. The first model, the Perceptron, was introduced by Frank Rosenblatt in 1958. It
simulated a single neuron to process inputs and make binary (yes/no) decisions.
3. Structure:

a. Input Layer: Receives raw data (e.g., images, text, numbers)

b. Hidden Layer(s): Performs computations using weights, biases, and activation

functions

c. Output Layer: Delivers final predictions or classifications

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4. Each neuron performs weighted summations of inputs, passes it through an activation
function, and transmits the result forward.

How Neural Networks Work

Component Role

Weights & Biases Determine the importance of each input

Activation Introduces non-linearity; common types include ReLU, Sigmoid,

Function Tanh

Training Process Uses large datasets and algorithms like backpropagation to

minimize error

Output A decision, prediction, or classification

S
IA
Applications and Significance in India’s Context

Sector Application of Neural Networks

Governance Language translation (e.g., Bhashini), grievance redressal, sentiment

analysis
s
en
Agriculture Crop disease prediction, yield forecasting, automated irrigation

Healthcare Medical imaging diagnostics (e.g., tumor detection), drug discovery

hL

Education Personalized learning platforms, AI-based tutoring

Finance Fraud detection, credit risk scoring, algorithmic trading

Urban Planning Smart traffic management, pattern recognition in satellite imagery

es

Security & Threat detection, autonomous surveillance, cybersecurity

Defence
Fr

13.8. Gravitational waves: Listening to the heartbeat of space-time

Context: Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of spacetime, caused by massive
accelerating bodies like colliding black holes or neutron stars. Predicted by Albert
Einstein in 1916 as part of the General Theory of Relativity, they remained undetected for
nearly a century until their first direct detection by LIGO in 2015 — a watershed moment in
modern physics.

What are Gravitational Waves?

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I. Gravitational waves are oscillations in spacetime generated by violent
astrophysical events.
II. Source Events:
a. Black hole mergers
b. Neutron star collisions
c. Supernovae (core collapses)
d. Spinning neutron stars
(continuous waves)
III. Characteristics:
a. Travel at the speed of
light
b. Extremely weak
interaction with matter → pass undisturbed through cosmic material

S
c. Carry energy and information about their origins

IA
Applications and Scientific Significance

Area Implications

Astrophysics Understanding black holes, neutron stars, and the early universe

Cosmology
s
Could help probe inflationary epoch and cosmic background
en
Nuclear Physics Reveals behavior of matter at extreme densities

Element Formation Neutron star mergers explained origins of gold and heavy elements
hL

Scientific Frontiers Opens possibilities for quantum gravity and unified field theories

Gravitational wave astronomy is not just a scientific triumph but a transformational leap in
es

human understanding of the cosmos. Like Galileo’s telescope, LIGO has opened a new
sensory dimension — enabling us to hear the whispers of the universe. With India’s active
involvement in LIGO-India, the country is poised to play a pivotal role in this unfolding
Fr

celestial symphony.

14. Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation,

Environmental Impact Assessment
14.1. What a new study found about the long-term impact of deep sea
mining
#Context: Deep Sea Mining (DSM) refers to the extraction of mineral and metal deposits
from the ocean floor, especially in depths beyond 200 meters. It is increasingly gaining
attention as terrestrial mineral reserves dwindle and demand for rare metals rises due to the
green and digital transition.

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Types of Deep Sea Mining

Type Target Resource

Polymetallic Nodule Mining Nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper

Seafloor Massive Sulphides Zinc, lead, silver, gold near hydrothermal vents

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts Cobalt, platinum from underwater mountains

Environmental Concerns

Issue Impact

Sediment Plumes Smother benthic organisms, reduce light penetration, affect

filter feeders

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Noise and Vibration Disturbs marine mammals and benthic life

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Biodiversity Loss Long-term or irreversible damage to fragile deep-sea
ecosystems

Slow Recovery Rates Recolonisation takes decades or centuries due to low

reproduction rates
s
Carbon Sequestration Sediment disturbance may release stored carbon into water
en
Disruption column

Way Forward
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1. Adopt precautionary principle in

approving DSM projects.
2. Push for international moratorium
until robust environmental impact
es

assessments (EIA) and mitigation

tech are available.
3. Promote marine protected areas
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(MPAs) and deep-sea biodiversity

studies.
4. Invest in alternative sources: e-waste recycling and urban mining.

14.2. All about the revised Green India Mission to increase forest cover,
address climate change

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Context: The Green India Mission (GIM), launched in 2014 under the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), is India’s flagship afforestation initiative to combat
climate change through increased forest cover,
biodiversity restoration, and community-based
forest management.

In June 2025, the Government of India released a

revised roadmap for GIM to align with evolving
climate realities and national commitments.

Core Objectives of GIM

Increase forest/tree cover on 5 million ha

S
Improve forest quality on another 5 million ha

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Enhance ecosystem services (carbon sink, water, etc.)

Promote forest-based livelihood for local communities

s
Key Features of the Revised Roadmap (2025)
en
Region Focus Areas

Aravalli Linked with Green Wall Project; restoring 8 lakh ha over 4 states;
Range addressing desertification and dust storms in NCR
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Western Addressing deforestation, mining degradation, groundwater recharge

Ghats

Himalayas Landscape-specific eco-restoration to tackle glacial melt and slope erosion

es

Mangroves Strengthening coastal buffer zones against cyclones, salinity

Fr

Alignment with National & Global Goals

Target Status/Strategy

Restore 26 million ha of degraded GIM and Green Wall integrated planning

land by 2030

Carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes Forest Survey of India (FSI) estimates: 3.39 billion
CO₂ eq. by 2030 tonnes CO₂ achievable

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Prioritized through impaired forest restoration and
under UNCCD eco-restoration

Way Forward

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1. Integrated planning with CAMPA, MGNREGA, and Watershed Missions.
2. Strengthen scientific monitoring, geotagging, and satellite-based verification.
3. Promote native species-based afforestation.
4. Engage tribal and forest dwellers as custodians of eco-restoration.

14.3. What is the Supreme Court directive on sacred groves?

Context: Sacred groves are ecologically-rich forest patches conserved traditionally by local
communities for cultural, religious, and ecological reasons. With more than 25,000 sacred
groves (locally called orans, deo ghats, etc.) in Rajasthan alone, and an estimated 1–10 lakh
across India, these groves represent
India’s oldest community-based
conservation systems.

S
They are typically protected through
customary taboos, often prohibiting

IA
tree felling, hunting, or resource
extraction, making them inviolate
zones and critical biodiversity
hotspots. s
en
Ecological and Cultural Significance

Ecological Functions Cultural/Community Significance

hL

Preserve endemic and rare species Deeply linked to local deities, ancestor worship,
and oral traditions

Act as gene banks and seed Regulated through social taboos and community
es

reservoirs norms

Maintain water sources (springs, Serve as centres for rituals, festivals, and
Fr

ponds, streams) medicinal knowledge

Prevent soil erosion and buffer Custodians of cultural identity and community
against climate events health practices

Policy Recommendations

Short-Term Measures Long-Term Vision

Pause reclassification of sacred groves National policy for mapping and protecting
without consent sacred groves

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Prior informed consent from Gram Integration with climate resilience, biodiversity
Sabhas & heritage plans

Joint management with co-governance Legal clarity between FRA, WLPA, and FCA
models through legislative review

14.4. It’s official, nearly 84% of coral reefs are affected in the most
widespread mass global bleaching event
Context: Coral reefs are known as the “Rainforests of the Sea”, but are now facing mass
extinction-level threats.

The Fourth Global Coral Bleaching Event, confirmed in April 2024 by the US National

S
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the International Coral Reef
Initiative, is the most severe and widespread bleaching event in recorded history. It has

IA
impacted 83.7% of global coral reef
areas, affecting at least 83 countries and
territories.
s
This surpasses previous events in 1998,
en
2010, and 2014–2017, marking an
alarming escalation in marine ecosystem
stress due to global warming and
marine heatwaves
hL

What is Coral Bleaching?

es

1. Coral bleaching is a stress response to prolonged elevated sea surface temperatures.

2. Corals expel their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) which:

a. Provide 90% of coral energy via photosynthesis.

Fr

b. Give corals their color and health.

3. Without zooxanthellae, corals turn white, lose energy sources, and become prone to
disease and mortality.

Current Scale and Geographic Spread

Region Status

Pacific Ocean Extensive bleaching across reefs in Australia, Japan, etc.

Indian Ocean Heat stress recorded across Maldives, Lakshadweep, etc.

Atlantic & Caribbean Severe bleaching in the Greater Caribbean, Florida

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Ecological & Economic Importance of Coral Reefs

Ecological Economic & Social

Habitat for ~33% of marine species Livelihood for ~1 billion people

Protect coastlines from erosion Basis of fisheries, tourism, & food

Promote carbon sequestration Contribute ~$375 billion annually to economy

Causes of Coral Bleaching

1. Climate-induced marine heatwaves

S
2. Global warming and rising sea surface temperatures
3. Ocean acidification due to CO₂ absorption

IA
4. Pollution, sedimentation, and destructive fishing practices

Policy Imperatives & Global Response

Recommendations Status/Examples

Urgent GHG emission reductions

s Paris Agreement targets; COP pledges
en
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) GBR zoning, Seychelles Blue Bond

Enhanced coral reef monitoring systems NOAA Coral Reef Watch; Global Coral Reef
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Map

Funding for reef restoration and UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–

adaptation 30)
es

Support for coral farming & replanting India (Lakshadweep/Andaman) experiments

Fr

14.5. Green Credit Programme: What the scheme entails, criticisms

against it
Context: The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched in October 2023 by the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), is a market-based, voluntary
initiative aimed at promoting "pro-planet" activities through tradable green credits. It is
aligned with Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) and India's climate commitments
under the Paris Agreement.

Objectives

1. Promote voluntary environmental actions by individuals, industries, and institutions.

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2. Incentivize eco-friendly behaviour via green credits, which can be traded in a domestic
market.
3. Support afforestation, eco-
restoration, water conservation, and
waste management through public-
private partnerships.
4. Help meet compensatory
afforestation obligations and ESG
disclosures under SEBI’s BRSR
framework.

Key Features of GCP

Feature Details

S
Admin Body Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) as

IA
nodal agency

Pilot Phase Focus Tree plantation & eco-restoration of degraded lands

Land Eligibility Degraded land parcels (min 5 hectares), open forests, scrublands,
wastelands
s
en
Credit Valuation 1 grown tree = 1 green credit (min 1,100 trees/ha)

Tradability Credits tradable on domestic platforms for regulatory or ESG

compliance
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Scale (as of Mar 2,364 land parcels (54,669 ha); 384 participants including 41 PSUs
2024)
es

Environmental and Ecological Criticism

Concern Explanation
Fr

Greenwashing risk Corporates may buy credits instead of implementing real

environmental action.

Degraded lands ≠ Many degraded lands support unique biodiversity and

Wastelands traditional uses.

No biodiversity equivalence Arbitrary plantations cannot replicate ecological value of

old-growth forests.

Commodification of Turns ecological services into marketable assets,

conservation undermining intrinsic values.

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Potential Benefits (If Regulated Well)

1. Mobilizes private sector financing for ecological restoration.

2. Can supplement state forestry schemes with better monitoring & outcomes.

3. Aligns environmental action with corporate ESG goals.

4. If expanded responsibly, may contribute to carbon sequestration, land restoration, and

climate resilience.

Policy Recommendations

1. Delink GCP from legal compliance of Compensatory Afforestation to avoid misuse.

2. Establish a robust verification and monitoring mechanism with independent ecological
audits.

S
3. Ensure free, prior, informed consent (FPIC) of local and tribal communities for all
plantation sites.

IA
4. Promote native species, biodiversity restoration, and climate-resilient landscapes — not
just monoculture plantations.
5. Consider setting up an independent Green Credit Regulatory Authority under
s
statutory backing for credibility.
en
14.6. What is the International Big Cat Alliance, launched by India?
Context: The International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) is a multilateral alliance launched by
the Government of India in March 2024, under the aegis of the National Tiger
hL

Conservation Authority (NTCA). It aims to

facilitate global cooperation in the
conservation of seven iconic big cat species
– Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard,
es

Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma.

First Assembly of the IBCA was held on June

Fr

16, 2025, in New Delhi with endorsement

from 9 countries and participation of 25
member nations so far.

Objectives of IBCA

1. Build a global alliance of big cat range countries and stakeholders.

2. Promote knowledge-sharing, best practices, and capacity building.
3. Support scientific conservation, habitat protection, and conflict mitigation.
4. Mobilise financial, technical, and policy support for conservation across continents.
5. Establish India as the global hub for big cat conservation diplomacy.

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Governance and Structure

Element Description

President of IBCA Union Minister for Environment, Forest & Climate Change
(currently Bhupender Yadav)

Funding ₹150 crore allocated (2023–2028) by Government of India

Membership Open to all UN member states; currently 25 members

Headquarters Ratified to be located in India

Implementation NTCA and MoEFCC

Arm

S
Strategic Importance

IA
1. Ecological Keystone: Big cats regulate herbivore populations, maintain ecosystem
balance, and protect biodiversity.
2. Climate Mitigation: Forest habitats of big cats act as carbon sinks, aiding climate
adaptation and mitigation. s
en
3. Disaster Buffering: Healthy ecosystems reduce vulnerability to floods, droughts,
wildfires, and zoonotic spillovers.
4. Global Leadership: IBCA enhances India's soft power and leadership in environmental
multilateralism
hL

Challenges in Big Cat Conservation

Challenge Description
es

Poaching & Wildlife Sophisticated illegal networks, linked with arms and drug
Trade cartels.

Habitat Loss Due to deforestation, infrastructure projects, and agricultural

Fr

expansion.

Human-Wildlife Growing urbanisation and fragmentation of habitats raise

Conflict conflict incidents.

Climate Change Alters prey distribution, water availability, and forest health.

14.7. Air Pollution and the National Clean Air Program (NCAP)
Context: Air pollution remains one of India’s most pressing environmental and public
health challenges. With 18 of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities located in India (as
per WHO), the country faces a growing burden of respiratory diseases, economic loss, and

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environmental degradation. In response, the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was
launched in January 2019 as a comprehensive policy framework to tackle the issue in a
time-bound manner.

What is NCAP?

1. Launched: 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC)
2. Goal: To reduce PM2.5 and PM10 levels by 20-30% by 2024 (from 2017 levels), revised
to 40% by 2026
3. Scope: Targets 131 non-attainment cities (cities failing to meet national ambient air
quality standards)
4. Strategy:
I. Preparation of city-level clean air action plans
II. Promotion of multi-sectoral interventions

S
III. Deployment of air quality monitoring systems
IV. Performance-based funding through 15th Finance Commission Grants

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Key Focus Sectors under NCAP

Sector Actions Initiated

Transport s
EV policy, diesel generator bans, NMT promotion, bus fleet
en
upgrades

Industry Common boiler policies, CEMS tech, clean fuels adoption

Construction & Geo-tagging, recycling plants, bin systems (e.g., Delhi model)
hL

Demolition

Solid Waste Zero landfill (Indore), decentralized waste centers

Management (Ambikapur, Bhopal)
es

Road Dust Control Mechanical sweeping, greening, dust suppressants (especially

in IGP)
Fr

Achievements & Good Practices

City Innovation/Initiative

Delhi EV policy (12% fleet electrification), C&D waste tech, diesel generator
curbs

Kolkata Remote sensing of vehicle emissions

Chennai City-wide NMT policy for walking and cycling

Bhubaneswar Complete overhaul of public transport

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Srinagar Electric boats on Jhelum, Smart City pedestrian infrastructure

Indore Zero landfill, end-to-end waste system

Pune Inclusion of informal waste pickers in formal waste management

Hyderabad Decentralised C&D waste treatment under PPP

Key Challenges Identified by CSE Report (2024)

1. Sectoral Imbalance: Overemphasis on dust control vs underinvestment in combustion

and industrial pollution
2. Monitoring Gaps: Lack of robust PM2.5 monitoring in smaller towns and peri-urban
areas

S
3. Institutional Weaknesses: Poor coordination among urban local bodies, pollution
control boards, and line departments

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4. Inconsistent Funding Ties: NCAP funds not always linked to performance or reforms
5. Underutilisation of Legal Mandates: Weak enforcement and lack of punitive measures
for non-compliance

CSE’s Strategic Recommendationss

en
Recommendation Explanation

Expand Sectoral Targets Move from just PM10 to PM2.5; integrate ozone, NOx,
SOx monitoring
hL

Link Funds to Reforms Performance-based finance tied to outcomes and best-

practice replication

Catalyse Good Practices Scale successful city models through NCAP as a

es

multiplier mechanism

Build Institutional Capacity Legal backing for city plans; enhance technical staffing
Fr

at local levels

Monitor Industrial Zones Extend NCAP to peri-urban and rural industrial belts
Proactively outside ULB limits

15. Disaster and Disaster Management

15.1. India’s escalating heat crisis: preparing our cities and protecting
the vulnerable
Context: India is rapidly becoming a global hotspot for extreme heat. With over 76% of the
population at high to very high risk, heatwaves have evolved from being seasonal

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discomforts to severe public health emergencies with widespread socioeconomic
ramifications. According to the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) and
recent IMD reports, the frequency, intensity, and geographic spread of heatwaves are
escalating, underscoring the need
for a robust national heatwave
mitigation strategy.

Defining Heat Risk

1. Heatwaves are defined by IMD

as prolonged periods of
abnormally high temperatures:

S
a. Plains: ≥ 40°C

IA
b. Coastal areas: ≥ 37°C

c. Hilly areas: ≥ 30°C

d. Severe Heatwave: Departure of ≥ 6.5°C or ≥ 47°C

s
2. Heat Risk, however, extends beyond temperature:
en
a. Heat intensity (including humidity)

b. Population exposure
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c. Underlying vulnerabilities (elderly, outdoor workers, pre-existing conditions)

Key Findings from CEEW & IMD (2024)

Factor Observation
es

Rising Very Warm >70% districts had ≥5 extra hot nights/summer (2012–2022)
Nights
Fr

Increased Humidity North India saw RH rise from 30–40% to 40–50%, worsening
heat stress

Urban Heat Island Tier II/III cities with concrete sprawl (e.g., Pune, Gurugram)
Effect experience hotter nights

Health & Socioeconomic >44,000 heatstroke cases in 2024; productivity losses of ~$100
Toll billion in 2022

Geographic Spread High risk in Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra, TN,
UP, Kerala, Goa

Global Context 2024 was the hottest year on record globally and for India
(+1.2°C vs 1901–10 avg.)

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Policy Gaps and Implementation Challenges

1. Most Heat Action Plans (HAPs) lack long-term adaptation strategies

2. Even well-crafted plans are poorly implemented (SFC 2024 study)
3. NDMA Guidelines (2019) exist but lack widespread adoption or enforcement
4. Urban planning ignores climate resilience (e.g., low tree cover in Delhi)
5. Digital divide limits early warning dissemination in rural India

Best Practices to Scale

State/City Initiative Impact

Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (Cool roofs, water stations, 30% drop in heat-related
early warnings) mortality

Odisha Disaster shelters and early warnings High preparedness level

S
(adapted from cyclone model)

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Delhi Pilot cooling centres in urban areas Reduced heatstroke
fatalities in 2023

s
Recommendations: A National Heatwave Resilience Framework
en
Urban & Rural Cooling Infrastructure

1. Cooling centres with water, shade, first-aid in every city/town/village

hL

2. Expand cool roof programs using reflective materials

Urban Planning & Green Infrastructure

3. Heat-resilient housing codes

es

4. Tree plantations and urban forests to counter UHI effect

Early Warning & Communication Systems

Fr

5. Localized heat alerts via SMS, IVR in regional languages

6. Integrate with NDMA & IMD networks

Equitable Access to Cooling

7. Subsidised fans/coolers for low-income groups

8. Public-private cooling hubs with community participation

Healthcare System Strengthening

9. Heatwave readiness protocols in hospitals

10. Stockpiling of essential medical supplies (ORS, IV)

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11. Train medical personnel on heatstroke identification and response

Data and Governance

12. Heat Risk Index (HRI) based on real-time heat and vulnerability data

13. Climate-proof employment guarantee schemes (like MGNREGA) with heat-

sensitive scheduling

15.2. Quakes may well sharpen India’s seismic readiness

Context: India lies at the intersection of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates, rendering
much of its northern and northeastern region highly susceptible to seismic hazards. Recent
events — from the devastating Turkey-Syria earthquake (2023) to tremors felt across
Delhi, Bihar, and Shigatse (2025) — have underscored India’s exposure to high-magnitude

S
earthquakes and the systemic fragility of
infrastructure in seismic zones.

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Despite warnings by seismologists, urban
development continues rapidly in seismic-
prone areas like the Himalayan belt and
s
Indo-Gangetic plains, often overlooking
seismic safety norms.
en
The Risk Landscape
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Risk Regions Covered Description

Zone

Zone V Northeast India, parts of J&K, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Rann of Highest risk
es

Kutch, North Bihar

Zone IV Delhi, parts of Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, UP, WB, Gujarat Severe risk
Fr

Zone III Kerala, Goa, Rajasthan, Lakshadweep Moderate

risk

Zone II Southern states, Central India Low risk

Current Institutional Mechanism

Agency Function

NDMA (National Disaster Management Lays down policies for earthquake

Authority) preparedness

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Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) Monitoring seismic activities, issuing
warnings

Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Formulates seismic design codes (IS:1893)

State Disaster Management Authorities Localized response and rehabilitation

(SDMAs)

Key Challenges

1. Inadequate retrofitting of older buildings and lifeline infrastructure

2. Weak monitoring of building code enforcement
3. Minimal public awareness of earthquake preparedness
4. Underdeveloped earthquake insurance market
5. Lack of predictive infrastructure, such as advanced sensor grids

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6. Ecologically disruptive development (e.g., blasting in hills)

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Strategic Recommendations

Risk-Responsive Infrastructure Planning

1. Moratorium on large-scale infrastructure in high-risk zones (Zone IV & V) unless

seismic audits are cleared.s
en
2. Mandatory earthquake-resilient design in all new construction, including private
housing, through BIS-compliant designs.

3. Audit and retrofit critical assets like hospitals, schools, bridges, hydel and nuclear
hL

plants (e.g., Narora in Zone IV).

Enhanced Seismic Mapping and Monitoring

4. Update seismic zonation maps with higher granularity using AI, remote sensing,
es

and GIS.

5. Establish a real-time seismic sensor network, collaborating with global leaders (e.g.,
Fr

Japan, Turkey, USGS).

6. Set up regional early warning centres and AI-assisted prediction labs.

Insurance and Fiscal Preparedness

7. Launch a National Earthquake Insurance Scheme (NEIS) with subsidized

premiums for low-income households.

8. Establish a Disaster Risk Fund to cover costs of rescue, shelter, and rehabilitation in
affected zones.

Awareness, Education & Drills

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9. Launch a national Earthquake Literacy Campaign — focus on schools, RWAs,
municipal zones.

10. Periodic mock drills across all government offices, public buildings, and critical
zones.

11. Local panchayats/ULBs to maintain earthquake contingency maps for each

ward/sector.

Institutional Strengthening

12. Create a Seismic Safety Authority to monitor, regulate and audit all public and
private infrastructure in high-risk zones.

13. Incentivize public-private partnerships for cool retrofitting, seismic audits, and

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sensor-based warning systems.

15.3. India recorded over 3.2 crore disaster displacements in a decade:

IA
IDMC
Context: India ranks third globally in disaster-induced internal displacements, with over
32.3 million (3.23 crore) cases recorded between 2015 and 2024, according to the Internal
s
Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC). This
en
includes displacements caused by floods,
cyclones, storms, droughts, and other natural
hazards, which are increasing in intensity and
hL

frequency due to climate change.

The issue of disaster displacement is no longer

episodic — it is becoming chronic and systemic,
disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations and posing significant challenges to
es

urban planning, climate resilience, and social justice.

Fr

Impacts of Disaster Displacement

Dimension Impact

Social Disruption of education, health services, loss of identity/documents

Economic Loss of livelihoods, housing, productivity

Environmental Ecological stress in host areas due to temporary settlements

Psychological Trauma, anxiety, gender-based vulnerabilities (esp. women and

children)

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Governance Pressure on disaster management systems, need for legal and policy
clarity

Policy and Institutional Landscape

Framework/Agency Relevance

Disaster Management Act, 2005 Relief, response, and rehabilitation

NDMA Guidelines Risk reduction, resilience building

Sendai Framework (2015–2030) Priority on disaster-induced displacement

Paris Agreement Climate adaptation financing and loss & damage

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2030 SDG Agenda Goals 1, 11, 13 on poverty, cities, and climate
action

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National Climate Resilience Urban planning, coastal zone management
Missions

Recommendations and Way Forward

s
en
1. Develop a National Policy for Climate and Disaster Displacement
2. Include DIDPs as a distinct category under disaster relief codes
3. Include displacement data in State and District Disaster Management Plans
hL

4. Build flood-resilient, cyclone-proof housing in vulnerable zones

5. Integrate green infrastructure and urban heat mitigation
6. Tap into climate finance (Green Climate Fund) for adaptation and relocation
es

15.4. Artificial Intelligence and Disaster Management

Fr

Context: The increasing frequency and intensity of natural disasters — floods, wildfires,
landslides, cyclones, and earthquakes — have put immense strain on traditional disaster
management mechanisms globally and in India. With disasters now affecting even
previously safe regions, there is an urgent need to augment human capacities with
technological intelligence. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) offer
transformative tools for forecasting, response, damage assessment, and recovery.

Applications Across Disaster Management Lifecycle

Phase AI Application Example / Case

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Preparedness AI-driven early warning systems NASA’s LHASA model
using satellite imagery, weather data predicting landslides every 3
hours

Prevention / Predictive modeling for vulnerable Idukki’s IDRIS system to

Mitigation zones; deforestation and predict floods, forest fires,
encroachment detection and landslides

Response Damage assessment from satellite/ Google Research AI tool for

drone images; AI chatbots for SOS building damage after
communication earthquakes

Relief & Rescue Intelligent routing for aid; volunteer Nepal earthquake 2015: crowd-
coordination using ML-tagged social sourced disaster mapping
media using ML

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Recovery & Prioritizing reconstruction based on Qatar Foundation's software

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Rehabilitation impact zones; AI models for categorizing field reports
reconstruction costs and needs

Challenges in AI Deployment
s
en
Category Challenges

Data Lack of high-resolution and clean datasets; data silos across

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departments

Infrastructure Limited satellite and drone access in rural/remote areas

Funding High cost of model development and real-time processing

es

Institutional Low awareness and training at state/district disaster management

Capacity agencies
Fr

Ethical Risks Data privacy concerns, bias in algorithms, misinformation risks

16. Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism

16.1. Naxalmukt Bharat Abhiyan – India’s Decisive Battle Against Left
Wing Extremism
Context: Left Wing Extremism (LWE), popularly known as Naxalism, has long posed a
serious internal security challenge to India, especially in tribal and underdeveloped regions
known as the "Red Corridor". Rooted in socio-economic inequalities and Maoist ideology, it
threatened democratic institutions, development initiatives, and civilian lives for decades.

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The ‘Naxalmukt Bharat Abhiyan’, launched as a culmination of India’s National Policy
and Action Plan (2015), marks a transformative and multi-pronged campaign to eliminate
LWE and integrate affected regions into the national mainstream. It reflects a shift from
"hard state-centric counter-insurgency" to a “holistic security + development” approach

LWE Threat Landscape: Historical Context

1. Origin: Naxalbari movement, 1967 (West Bengal)

2. Spread: Across 90+ districts of 10 states (Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, etc.)
3. Impact: Thousands of civilian and security force deaths; destruction of public
infrastructure; hindered access to healthcare, education, and financial inclusion in
tribal belts.

Achievements Under ‘Naxalmukt Bharat Abhiyan’ (2014–2025)

S
Metric 2010–14 2014–24/25 Change

IA
Violent Incidents 16,463 7,744 ↓ 53%

Security Force Casualties 1,851 509 ↓ 73%

Civilian Deaths s
~8,000+ 150 (in 2024) ↓ 85%
en
Naxal-Affected Districts 126 38 (as of 2024) ↓ 70%

Red Zone Area 18,000 sq. km 4,200 sq. km ↓ 77%

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Fortified Police Stations 66 612 ↑ 828%

1. Naxalites neutralized (2024 alone): 290 killed, 1,090 arrested, 881 surrendered
es

2. Since Jan 2024 in Chhattisgarh alone: 237 killed, 812 arrested, 723 surrendered
3. Reduction in active Naxal cadres (Chhattisgarh): 85% eliminated
Fr

National Strategy: Security + Development Integration

Security Measures

1. Modernization of Police Forces: 612 fortified police stations; 302 security camps
added; 68 helipads built.

2. CIAT Schools: To train state police in counter-insurgency.

3. Deployment: 6 additional CRPF battalions; creation of 15 joint task forces.

4. Use of Intelligence & Technology: Real-time intelligence sharing, drone

surveillance.

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5. NIA & ED Involvement: Crackdown on Maoist funding; PMLA invoked.

6. SRE Scheme: ₹3,260 crore reimbursed for security expenses including ex-gratia,
rehabilitation.

Development Interventions

7. Special Central Assistance (SCA): ₹3,563 crore for infrastructure gaps in most
affected districts.

8. Special Infrastructure Scheme (SIS): ₹1,741 crore sanctioned for Special Forces and
Intelligence.

9. Road Connectivity: 14,618 km roads constructed under RRP-I and RCPLWE.

10. Telecom Connectivity: 10,505 mobile towers sanctioned; 7,768 operational; full

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coverage by Dec 2025.

IA
11. Banking & Financial Inclusion: 1,007 bank branches, 937 ATMs, 37,850 Banking
Correspondents.

12. Education & Skilling: 178 EMRSs functional; 48 ITIs, 61 SDCs.

s
13. Youth Employment: 1,143 tribal youth recruited into security forces.
en
14. Flagship Campaigns: ‘Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan’ targeting
15,000 villages and 1.5 crore people.

Winning Hearts and Minds

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15. Civic Action Programme (CAP): ₹196 crore to bridge trust gaps between security
forces and local communities.

16. Media Plan: ₹52 crore for countering Maoist propaganda via radio, documentaries,
es

and youth outreach.

17. Tribal Youth Exchange Programmes: Promoting awareness of government schemes

Fr

and democratic participation.

Critical Areas and Remaining Pockets of Concern (2024–25)

Category Key Districts

Most Affected Sukma, Bijapur, Narayanpur, Kanker (Chhattisgarh); Gadchiroli

(6) (Maharashtra); West Singhbhum (Jharkhand)

Districts of Malkangiri, Kandhamal, Kalahandi (Odisha); Alluri Sitarama Raju

Concern (6) (AP); Balaghat (MP); Bhadradri-Kothagudem (Telangana)

Way Forward

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Priority Area Recommendation

Sustained Surveillance Real-time monitoring and predictive policing using AI/ML

Tribal Rights Ensure legal safeguards under FRA 2006, PESA Act, and Land
Protection Acquisition rules

Post-Conflict Create Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) for long-term

Development education, health, and livelihood missions

Inter-State Synergy Joint operation grids and cross-border command structures

De-radicalisation Partner with NGOs, civil society, and local influencers

Programmes

S
17. Role of External State and Non-state Actors in creating

IA
challenges to Internal Security
17.1. Proliferation Financing (PF) – A Growing Threat to Global and
Financial Security s
en
Context: Proliferation Financing (PF) refers to the provision of funds or financial services
used for the manufacture, acquisition, possession, development, export, shipment, or use
of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). The evolving threat landscape, particularly
amid recent geopolitical crises like the Israel-Iran tensions and North Korea’s nuclear
hL

advances, underlines the urgent need to disrupt PF networks that enable such programs.

The June 2025 FATF report titled “Complex Proliferation Financing and Sanctions Evasion
Schemes” highlights the sophisticated mechanisms employed by state and non-state actors
es

to bypass counter-measures and fund WMD programs.

Key Features of Proliferation Financing

Fr

Dimension Details

Nature of Transnational, state-sponsored or proxy-led; often involves sanctioned

threat regimes

Means Front companies, dual-use goods procurement, mislabelling, crypto

employed laundering, maritime evasion

Key Enablers Loopholes in global financial systems, lack of enforcement, weak

KYC/AML systems

Recent Trends Digital currency use, cybercrime (e.g., DPRK’s Lazarus Group), hawala
routes

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Recent Case Highlights

North Korea (DPRK)

1. Shift from traditional smuggling to cybercrime and digital finance.

2. $1.5 billion stolen in ByBit crypto heist (Feb 2025).

3. Uses maritime manipulation, remote IT labor, and illicit exports (e.g., wigs) to bypass
UN sanctions.

Iran

4. Uses foreign exchange houses, proxies, and front firms to procure dual-use items
and smuggle oil.

Pakistan

S
5. National Development Complex (NDC) implicated in PF via false declarations of

IA
missile components as “industrial dryers”.

6. Smuggling of 2.8 billion litres of Iranian oil annually, using hawala financing and
maritime routes, flagged as PF risk.
s
The Role of Technology in Modern PF
en
Tool Used Purpose

Cryptocurrency Mixers & DeFi platforms Obfuscate source and movement of funds
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Cyberattacks on exchanges Direct theft of digital assets (DPRK example)

Front companies in trade finance Mislabel dual-use goods to avoid scrutiny

Maritime spoofing & falsified documents Avoid sanctions on shipping routes

es

Way Forward:
Fr

1. India, as a responsible nuclear state, has zero tolerance for PF, but is geographically
vulnerable due to proximity to high-risk states.
2. India must tighten oversight over trade finance, cryptocurrency exchanges, and
border trade.
3. Coordination between FIU, RBI, SEBI, and Customs needs strengthening.
4. Regulatory sandboxing for crypto and fintech must integrate CPF (Counter-
Proliferation Financing) protocols.

18. Challenges to Internal Security through Communication

Networks, Role of Media and Social Networking Sites in Internal

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Security Challenges, Basics of Cyber Security; Money-Laundering
and its prevention
18.1. The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity
Context: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is no longer a peripheral tool in cybersecurity—it is fast
becoming its central nervous system. At the 2025 RSA Conference, it became clear that AI is
not only enhancing cyber defense capabilities but also transforming the threat landscape,
requiring a complete rethinking of cybersecurity strategies across the globe.

With both state and non-state actors leveraging AI to amplify cyber threats, and security
professionals integrating AI into detection, prevention, and response systems, AI represents
both an existential risk and a transformative opportunity in the field of cybersecurity.

S
Evolving Threat Landscape: AI as a Weapon

AI is accelerating cyberattacks, reducing “breakout time” (from breach to escalation) to

IA
under an hour. It enables:

a) Sophisticated phishing through AI-generated personalized content and deepfakes

b) s
Malicious code injection via large language models and prompt engineering
en
c) Model poisoning – contaminating AI models used by defenders

d) Real-time adaptive attacks, where machine learning analyzes defense mechanisms to

find new vulnerabilities
hL

e) Weaponization of RAG workflows, undermining data integrity in AI pipelines

Statistic: There has been a 1200% surge in phishing attacks since the rise of generative AI
in late 2022.
es

AI as a Defensive Shield: Smarter Cybersecurity

AI is being embedded in cyber defense tools to:

Fr

• Detect anomalies in user behavior, logins, and traffic

• Reverse-engineer malware and predict breach paths

• Automate Security Operations Centers (SOC) tasks like alert triage, incident
response, and threat hunting

• Predict vulnerabilities based on historical patterns

Agentic AI, a new paradigm, involves semi-autonomous AI agents that can think, reason,
and act in security operations—assisting human analysts in high-stress environments

Way Forward:

a) Create AI-specific cyber norms and regulations

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b) Update Data Protection and Digital India frameworks to include AI misuse
c) Mandate AI Explainability, Bias Audits, and Red Teaming
d) Leverage public-private partnerships (e.g., CERT-In + startups)

19. Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas -

Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism
19.1. How Operation Sindoor demonstrates capabilities of Made in
India defence technology
1. Context: Operation Sindoor’s success demonstrated India’s military superiority
over Pakistan with high precision strikes and effective defence mechanisms.
a. Indian air defence systems neutralized nearly all incoming Pakistani missiles
and drones.

S
2. Strikes achieved sub-metre accuracy using sophisticated guidance and navigation

IA
technologies.
a. Utilised NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), Cartosat, RISAT,
and EOS satellites for real-time targeting and surveillance.
b. Technologies developed indigenously by DRDO, ISRO and other
institutions. s
3. Missiles like BrahMos achieved massive destructive impact.
en
a. Success attributed to technologies from the Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme
(IGMDP).
4. Ongoing R&D includes deep
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penetration warheads, green

explosives, and Directed Energy
Weapons (DEWs).
5. Air Defence Systems like S-400,
es

SAMAR, and Akash were key in

neutralising threats.
6. Indigenous radars such as Rajendra, Rohini, 3D low-level, and LLTRs ensured
Fr

aerial surveillance and threat tracking.

7. Bofors guns upgraded with radars and EO sensors played a role in drone defence.
8. India effectively used drones for deep strikes; Pakistan’s drone swarms were less
impactful.
a. Thus, there’s a need of expanding domestic UAV production and building
secure supply chains.

19.2. How Air Defence Systems work

1. Context: After thwarting Pakistani attacks on several Indian targets overnight, India
targeted Air Defence Systems (ADS) in a number of locations in Pakistan.

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a. Controlling the skies is of paramount importance in modern warfare. As
such, air defence systems are a
vital cog in any nation’s
defensive infrastructure.
2. Three Core Operations of ADS
a. Detection: Primarily radar-
based; identifies threats by
transmitting and receiving
electromagnetic waves.
Satellites may supplement
detection in the case of long-range ballistic threats like ICBMs.
b. Tracking: Continuous monitoring of multiple fast-moving threats using radar,
infrared sensors, and laser rangefinders; essential for accurate targeting and
avoiding friendly fire.

S
c. Interception: Based on threat assessment (type, speed, range), aerial threats
are neutralised using appropriate weapons and techniques.

IA
3. Weapon Systems Used in Interception
a. Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Deployed for rapid-response missions.
Examples: MiG-21 Bison, Su-30MKI, Rafale, HAL Tejas.
b. Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Most common defence; guided by radar, IR,
s
or lasers. Types include:
en
c. Heavy Long-Range SAMs – e.g., S-400
d. Medium-Range Mobile SAMs – e.g., Akash
e. Short-Range MANPADS – portable systems effective against low-flying
threats.
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f. Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): Though less prominent now, still useful for
UAV threats and as a last-resort defence.
g. Electronic Warfare (EW): Disrupts or deceives enemy systems using the
electromagnetic spectrum; prevents accurate targeting and guidance of enemy
es

munitions.

19.3. Operation Sindoor | How India’s air defence shield works: Inside
Fr

the IACCS command system

1. Context: At the media briefing on Operation Sindoor, military officers displayed a
picture of the Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) node of the
Indian Air Force (IAF).
a. Developed by the public sector aerospace
and defence electronics company Bharat
Electronics Limited (BEL), IACCS is an
automated command and control
system that integrates data from all air
defence assets, including ground-based
radar, airborne sensors, civilian radar,

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communication nodes, and the various command and control centres of the
IAF.
2. The availability of the consolidated dataset,
along with real-time updates, provides military
commanders at multiple levels with a
comprehensive picture and overall situational
awareness during air operations, so that they
can respond to a wide range of aerial threats.
3. The overlapping radar and radio data coverage
of the IACCS helps in effective airspace
management and reduces redundancy.
4. The Army’s Akashteer
a. The Indian Army has a similar air defence control and reporting system
called Akashteer, which connects the units of its air defence.

S
b. Akashteer too has been developed by BEL, with which the Ministry of
Defence signed a Rs 1,982 crore contract in March 2023, according to an

IA
official release issued at the time. Akashteer would enable the monitoring of
low-level airspace over battle areas, and effectively control ground based air
defence weapon systems, the release said.
c. Akashteer operates at a comparatively small scale at present. It is in the
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process of being integrated with IACCS for effective coordination between
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the Army and Air Force air defence operations.

19.4. How drones are the new face of warfare

Context: The era of drone warfare marks a paradigm shift in modern military
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engagements. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are redefining the nature of conflict;
offering precision, deniability, affordability, and scalability. India's recent Operation Sindoor, in
response to the Pahalgam terror attack, has signified the growing centrality of drones in
es

India’s combat doctrine and the complexities posed by adversaries like Pakistan and
China using swarm drones, loitering munitions, and armed UAVs.
Fr

Evolution of Drone Warfare Globally

a. Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020):

Azerbaijan used Israeli Harop
and Turkish Bayraktar drones to
neutralize Armenian defenses.
b. Ukraine-Russia Conflict (2022–
Present): Use of improvised
drones, commercial UAVs, and swarm tactics has changed warfare dynamics, with
extensive use of 3D printing and modular drone production.
c. Myanmar (2023–24): Rebel groups deployed 3D-printed drones for asymmetric
warfare.

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d. Operation Spider Web (Ukraine): Targeted airbases using low-cost drones, showing
how commercial-grade drones can deliver strategic outcomes.

These instances demonstrate that drones have become force multipliers, capable of
achieving strategic effects at a fraction of conventional costs.

India’s Experience: Operation Sindoor

a. India employed standoff weapons, combat drones, and counter-drone systems to

retaliate with precision.
b. Indigenous systems like Akash missiles, Akashteer IACCS, D4 counter-drone
systems, loitering munitions, drone swarms, and jammer systems were deployed.
c. Pakistan used Turkish (Akinci), Chinese (CH-4), and indigenous drones in mass to
probe and overwhelm defences—exposing the escalatory role of drones in sub-
conventional warfare.

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Technological & Tactical Trends

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Trend Implication

Swarm drones & kamikaze Can overwhelm air defence systems with mass and speed
UAVs s
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AI-enabled navigation Autonomous evasion from jamming/spoofing; preloaded
terrain data for precision

Drone-jamming/anti-UAV Multilayered systems critical for defending key assets

systems
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Dual-use commercial Easily accessible and modifiable; used by both state and
drones non-state actors
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3D Printing of drones Rapid scaling in conflict zones; modular and low-cost

production
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India's Preparedness: Strengths and Gaps

Strengths

1. Atmanirbhar push: DRDO, startups, and iDEX-led ecosystem for UAVs and counter-
UAVs

2. Operational validation: Systems like D4, Akashteer, QRSAMs, LCA-Tejas readiness

during Operation Sindoor

3. Integrated Air Defence (IACCS): Successfully neutralised mass drone attacks

Gaps

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1. Low survivability and scale: India lacks the volume and redundancy required for
high-intensity drone operations

2. Weak industrial base: Private sector participation hindered by low order volumes
and uncertain procurement cycles

3. Vulnerable to swarm and EW attacks due to limited deployment of AI-integrated

systems and autonomous countermeasures

4. Civil defence readiness low: Internal security agencies not fully equipped to deal
with commercial drone threats from non-state actors

Way Forward:

1. Finalize and implement the Drone Use Policy across defence, paramilitary, and
police forces

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2. Institutionalize surge procurement capability to ramp up indigenous production

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during crises
3. Promote open architecture systems for modularity, interoperability, and scalability
4. Support AI and ML integration in both offensive and defensive UAV systems
5. Encourage 3D printing ecosystem to facilitate local production of UAV parts
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6. Establish drone surveillance networks in sensitive zones (nuclear plants, border
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towns)

19.5. DRDO tests directed energy weapon system that can disable
drones, missiles
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Context: Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) represent a transformative shift in modern

warfare. Unlike conventional munitions, DEWs use highly focused energy—typically
lasers, microwaves, or particle beams—to neutralize or destroy enemy targets. India’s
es

successful trial of the Mk-II(A) Laser-

DEW System in April 2025 has
positioned it among a select group of
Fr

countries capable of operationalizing

high-energy laser technology for
tactical deployment.

What are Directed Energy Weapons?

DEWs are systems that deliver energy—laser, microwave, or particle beam—at the speed
of light to damage or destroy enemy equipment. The Laser-DEW system developed by
DRDO utilizes high-power, coherent laser beams to burn through or disable drones,
projectiles, missiles, or sensors with pinpoint precision and minimal collateral damage.

Strategic Significance of DEWs

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Advantages Implications

Speed-of-light attack Near-instantaneous neutralization of threats

Low cost-per-shot Extremely cost-effective against swarm drone

attacks

High precision Minimizes collateral damage; ideal for urban

warfare

Deep magazine (no physical Uninterrupted operation in prolonged

ammo) engagements

Stealth & silent operation Reduces detectability; psychological deterrent

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Challenges and Limitations

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Challenge Explanation

Power generation & Requires high continuous energy, limiting mobility

storage

Atmospheric interference
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Fog, rain, dust, or turbulence can reduce beam effectiveness
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Cooling systems High-energy beams generate extreme heat that must be
dissipated

Line-of-sight limitation Cannot target hidden or obscured threats

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Policy & ethical concerns Escalation risks, compliance with international arms
conventions
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19.6. Civil Defence in India

Fr

Context: Civil Defence refers to the protection of civilians and infrastructure from natural
and man-made disasters, particularly during hostile attacks or national emergencies.
Rooted in the Civil Defence Act, 1968,
the framework equips governments at all
levels to prepare, respond, and recover
from emergencies, especially in times of
war, terrorism, or large-scale disasters.

Following the Pahalgam terror attack in

April 2025 and the launch of Operation
Sindoor, the Government of India
directed mock drills and civil defence
preparedness across all States and Union Territories on May 7, 2025.

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Objectives of Civil Defence

1. To protect life, property, and infrastructure during emergencies.

2. To maintain public order and morale in times of war or disaster.
3. To prepare civilians for self-help and mutual aid through training.
4. To assist in the recovery and rehabilitation of affected areas post-disaster/conflict

Legal Framework: The Civil Defence Act, 1968

Provision Key Powers and Measures

Emergency Powers Impose curfews, restrict movement, control gatherings,

close transport routes.

Compulsory Measures Detain or arrest without due legal process, requisition

property or services.

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Control over Economy and Regulate industries, control supply/distribution of

IA
Resources essential goods, kill animals if needed.

Workforce and Compel individuals to perform duties; censor

Communication Control publications and broadcasts.
s
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Civil Defence Districts

Definition: Districts demarcated by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) on MoD’s

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recommendation to implement civil defence protocols.

Criteria for Designation:

1. Proximity to international borders.

es

2. Presence of vital installations: nuclear plants, defence bases, power stations.

3. Infrastructure critical to national security: ports, highways, communication networks.

Fr

Current Status:

1. 259 Civil Defence Districts notified by MHA (as of 2010).

Core Activities under Civil Defence

Preparedness Measures Response Measures

Operationalisation of air raid sirens Execution of evacuation plans

Crash blackouts in sensitive areas Deployment of first responders and emergency

services

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Training civilians and students in Rescue, medical aid, and damage assessment
safety operations

Camouflaging vital installations Maintaining law and order during panic or chaos

20. Various Security Forces and Agencies and their Mandate

20.1. Role of the National Investigation Agency (NIA) in India’s
Counter-Terrorism efforts
Context: The National Investigation Agency (NIA) was established in 2008 following the
26/11 Mumbai terror attacks to create a dedicated central agency to combat terrorism and
protect national security. Envisioned as a premier counter-terrorism law enforcement

S
agency, NIA plays a critical role in safeguarding India's sovereignty and integrity by

IA
investigating and prosecuting offences with national and international ramifications.

Legal and Institutional Framework

Constituted under: NIA Act, 2008

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Amendment (2019): Empowered NIA to:
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1. Investigate crimes committed outside India involving Indian interests

2. Cover more offences under Explosive Substances Act (1908), Arms Act (1959), Human
Trafficking, and Cyber Terrorism
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Mandate: Investigate offences affecting:

1. Sovereignty and security of India

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2. Friendly foreign relations

3. International treaties and obligations

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Strengthening Counter-Terrorism Ecosystem

New Divisions & Technological Enhancements

1. NTDFAC: National Terror Data Fusion & Analysis Centre for big data analytics and
process automation

2. Counter Terrorism Research Cell (CTRC): Evolved from ISIS Investigation Cell
(IIRC)

3. Anti Human Trafficking Division (AHTD) and Anti Cyber Terrorism Division
(ACTD)

4. TFFC Cell: Terror Funding and Fake Currency Cell – Nodal for terror finance and
FICN

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Technological Collaboration & Training

5. MoU with NFSU for forensic capacity building

6. 40 training programs for State Police Forces on counter-terrorism

7. Capacity Building Training Programs (CBTPs) for national and foreign agencies

Global Collaboration

8. NMFT Conference 2022: Hosted 78 countries and 16 multilateral organizations

9. Joint Working Groups with 26 countries on counter-terrorism

10. Joint Task Force with Bangladesh on FICN

11. Trainings for officers from Nepal and Bangladesh

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20.2. Integrated Theatre Commands

IA
Context: India is undertaking a landmark reform in its military doctrine through the
creation of Integrated Theatre Commands (ITCs). ITC is a structural transformation aimed
at enhancing jointness and interoperability among the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The
s
move is part of India’s larger effort to build a leaner, agile, and tech-enabled fighting force
in line with global military practices.
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Background and Rationale

1. Currently, India’s military services operate independently, leading to overlapping

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resources, logistical duplication, and fragmented warfighting strategies.

2. The Kargil Review Committee (1999) and Naresh Chandra Task Force (2012)
recommended integration for enhanced jointness.
3. The appointment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) in 2019 was a critical step
es

towards unifying command structures.

4. The aim is to build theatre-specific joint commands that combine land, sea, air, space,
and cyber capabilities under a single commander for each theatre.
Fr

Key Features of Integrated Theatre Commands

Feature Details

Unified Command Single commander for all services in a geographical theatre

Structure of operations

Joint Planning and Integrated strategy for combat, logistics, surveillance, and
Execution air defence

Force Optimization Eliminate redundancy, share infrastructure, and allocate

assets efficiently

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Mission-Oriented Region-specific commands for proactive response to
Deployment threats

Challenges in Implementation

Category Challenges

Institutional Inter-service rivalry over control, resources, and rank parity

Resistance

Doctrinal Differences Varying operational philosophies of the Army, Navy, and Air
Force

Technology Need for compatible communication, surveillance, and AI-based

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Integration systems

IA
Legal and Amendments required to existing Acts; clear chain of command
Bureaucratic in peacetime

Manpower and Joint training and career path alignment for officers in integrated
Training structures
s
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Way Forward

1. Phased Implementation: Begin with air defence and maritime command before full
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rollout.
2. Legal Clarity: Ensure CDS has full operational control with defined civil-military
relations.
3. Joint Training Institutions: Strengthen tri-services training under institutions like
es

the National Defence Academy and upcoming joint logistics commands.

4. Technological Backbone: Build interoperable networks, satellite coverage, cyber-
defence, and unified intelligence grid.
Fr

5. Civil-Military Oversight: Parliamentary and executive review mechanisms to ensure

accountability

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