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 Foundations of Antenna Theory
Foundations of
Foundations of Antenna Theory and Techniques is a new text, designed
carefully to give readers a reasonably paced introduction to the theory
that underpins antenna design techniques. There has been recent
Antenna Theory
growth in the wireless market and research and development in antenna
technology is proceeding at a fast pace, with new emerging technologies
and
including antennas for cellular mobile communications, vehicle mounted
antennas and those for mobile satellite communications.
Techniques
Key features
➤ coverage of the fundamentals of antennas
➤ a step by step simplified mathematical approach
➤ basic antenna matching techniques
➤ antenna systems and related characterisation methods
➤ end of chapter problems
➤ a list of principle symbols and a glossary

This text is aimed at undergraduates in electrical and electronic

engineering and physics, and is suitable for courses in electromagnetics,
antenna theory and design, antennas and radar, radio engineering,

and
mobile communications and telecommunications. It will also be suitable
for professional engineers requiring an introduction to the subject and

Techniques
techniques.

Professor Vincent F. Fusco has a Chair in High Frequency Electronic

Engineering at Queen's University, Belfast and is head of high frequency
research. He has published extensively in international refereed journals
and conferences.

Cover image © Getty Images Fusco

www.pearson-books.com Vincent F. Fusco

FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page i

Foundations of Antenna Theory and Techniques

FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page ii

We work with leading authors to develop the

strongest educational materials in Engineering
bringing cutting-edge thinking and best learning
practice to a global market.

Under a range of well-known imprints, including

Prentice Hall, we craft high-quality print and
electronic publications which help readers to
understand and apply their content, whether
studying or at work.

To find out more about the complete range of our

publishing, please visit us on the World Wide Web at:
www.pearsoned.co.uk
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page iii

Foundations of
Antenna Theory
and Techniques

Vincent F. Fusco
The Queens University of Belfast
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page iv

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:

www.pearsoned.co.uk

First published 2005

© Pearson Education Limited 2005

The right of Vincent F. Fusco to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the
publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any
trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights
in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or
endorsement of this book by such owners.

ISBN 0 130 26267 6

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
08 07 06 05

Typeset in 10/12pt Times by 35

Printed and bound in Malaysia

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page v

Contents

Preface ix
List of principle symbols xii
Acknowledgements xv

1 Basic concepts 1
1.1 Radiation 1
1.2 The Hertzian dipole 5
1.3 Hertzian dipole polar pattern 8
1.4 The Hertzian dipole reconsidered 9
References 18
Problems 18

2 Electromagnetic wave propagation and power flow 20

2.1 Maxwell’s equations basics 20
2.2 Plane wave propagation in space 24
2.3 Power flow 28
2.4 Antenna directivity, power gain and efficiency 31
References 38
Problems 39

3 Linear dipole antennas 40

3.1 Dipole antenna of finite length 40
3.2 Current distribution on a finite-length dipole
(far-field effect of a sinusodial current) 42
3.3 Dipole antenna radiation resistance 46
3.4 Short dipole antenna 47
3.5 Gain of a half-wave dipole relative to a Hertzian
dipole and power transfer 49

v
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page vi

vi Contents

References 54
Problems 55

4 Antenna array techniques 56

4.1 Radiation patterns for two antennas 56
4.2 One-dimensional linear arrays and far-field
transformation 60
4.3 Two-dimensional stacked arrays 70
4.4 Non-uniform current excitation array 72
4.5 Antenna input impedance 76
4.6 Induced-emf method and mutual coupling 79
4.7 End-fire array example with mutual coupling 85
4.8 Dipole antennas in relation to a ground plane 89
References 92
Problems 93

5 Systems and characterisation considerations 94

5.1 Effective length of an antenna and reciprocity 95
5.2 Antenna aperture and the free-space link equation 95
5.3 Effective temperature of an antenna and noise effects 101
5.4 Polarisation of plane electromagnetic waves 108
5.5 Distance to antenna far field 112
5.6 Clearance 114
5.7 Antenna characterisation principles 117
References 126
Problems 126

6 Antenna-matching techniques 128

6.1 Transmission line principles 129
6.2 Lumped matching circuits 136
6.3 Reactive matching circuits 142
6.4 Balun matching 148
6.5 Power splitting/combining networks 151
6.6 Impedance matching and the Smith chart 153
References 161
Problems 162

7 Basic antenna types 164

7.1 Small rectangular loop antennas 165
7.2 Slot antennas 167
7.3 Yagi antennas 170
7.4 Rectangular microstrip patch antennas 172
7.5 Reflector antennas 177
7.6 Helical antennas 182
7.7 Horn antennas 186
7.8 Straight-wire travelling-wave antennas 187
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page vii

Contents vii

7.9 Planar inverted-F antennas 190

7.10 Dielectric resonator antennas 192
7.11 Reflectarray antennas 193
7.12 Equi-angular spiral antennas 195
7.13 Fractal antennas 197
References 198
Problems 200

8 Appendices 201
8.1 Linear array factor program 201
8.2 Reciprocity in a two-port network 211
8.3 Noise equivalent bandwidth, minimum discernible level
and noise temperature measurement 212
8.4 Scattering parameter matrix 214

Bibliography 217
Glossary of terms 221
Index 225
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page viii
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page ix

Preface

This book is designed as a set of topics that interlock in order to give the reader a
reasonably paced introduction to the theory that underpins antenna design techniques.
The earliest recorded pioneer of studies related to the creation and detection of
electromagnetic radiation through free space was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857–1894).
Hertz demonstrated by a series of experiments around 1886 that electromagnetic waves
transmitted through the air had wave-like characteristics. By good fortune, the spark
gap means by which he created his electromagnetic energy generated centimetre wave-
lengths. This involved creating a discharge of a Leyden jar (a capacitor) through one
coil while causing a spark to pass across a short air gap between the ends of the other
coil. Oliver Heaviside had pointed out in 1877 that such a discharge of a capacitor
in association with an inductor, the coil, would lead to oscillatory current. In effect,
Hertz created a broadband signal generator producing energy over a very wide range
of frequencies. Working at centimetre wavelengths meant that he could conveniently
reflect these waves by dielectric prisms and metal parabolic mirrors in much the same
way as light can be manipulated.
Hertz went on to show, using the principle of resonance, that with identical transmit
and receive circuits he could considerably increase the free-space transmission dis-
tance between transmitter and receiver. In addition, he realised that the relationship
between electromagnetic wave propagation amplitude and distance obeyed the inverse
distance relationship. It is this property that makes wireless communication attractive
as a virtual wire communication means.
Among Hertz’s many key discoveries was the linear oscillator, comprising two metal
rods terminating in metal spheres. In fact, he had created a dipole antenna similar in
many respects to that much used in today’s communication systems. Using this dipole,
he showed that the electromagnetic waves he was producing had their electric field
component parallel to his rod antennas, i.e. they were linearly polarised. This prin-
ciple is used today to reduce interference between radio communication systems that

ix
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page x

x Preface

share the same frequency response. Hertz’s seminal work ultimately led to the creation
of wireless communication across all the frequency ranges in use today.
The work of Hertz went a long way towards validating the set of mathematical rela-
tionships postulated by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879). Maxwell’s equations give
the coherent framework within which it is possible to establish the relationships between
electricity, magnetism and electromagnetic wave propagation. Maxwell proved that
radio waves were an electromagnetic phenomenon and that their maximum speed of
propagation in a vacuum was the same as that of light, 3 × 108 m/s. His work showed
theoretically that, like light, electromagnetic waves could be focused using a parabolic
reflector. Maxwell’s equations are the starting point for RF and microwave designers
in their attempts to quantify and control electromagnetic wave phenomena in order to
produce useful engineering artefacts such as antennas.
Samuel Morse had invented the printing telegraph in 1835, while Alexander Graham
Bell had patented his telephone transmitter and receiver in 1876 and distant commun-
ication over wires was established. The theoretical work of Maxwell, underpinned
by the supporting experimental evidence provided by Hertz, had by the 1890s led
to the idea that Hertzian waves as they were by that time known might be used as
an alternative to wire in order to transmit telegraphic or telephone signals over large
distances. The major thrust to providing realisation of these assertions came about as
a consequence of the work of Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), who from 1894 onwards
began to demonstrate wireless communication over useful distances.
A key breakthrough came when Marconi used transmit and receive antennas, which
were elevated above the ground. This dramatically improved free-space operating dis-
tance from a few hundred metres to several kilometres. Encouraged by these results
and realising that one of the most commercially attractive uses for wireless commun-
ications at that time was in facilitating ships in distress to summon assistance, Marconi
was granted the world’s first patent for a wireless telegraph in 1897.
Marconi then formed ‘The Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company Ltd’ later
to become ‘The Marconi Company’. A further significant technical breakthrough
for Marconi came in 1900, when he obtained a patent for a resonant tuner with a
variable capacitor, which could bring the transmitter and receiver into resonance. An
extension to this work meant that multiple antennas could be connected to a single
transmitter and receiver. With these improvements, Marconi’s company had a num-
ber of commercial successes with shipboard coastal radio. His major success came in
December 1901, when he managed to receive a signal in Newfoundland that had
been sent from Cornwall in England. With this, the monopoly control by the British
Post Office of transatlantic submarine cable telephony was broken. In the period
1902 to the 1920s, many key developments related to long-wave wireless telephony
occurred; for example, valves were invented, which improved transmitter power and
receiver sensitivity. Short-wave transatlantic radio communications were pioneered
in the 1930s at AT&T, Western Electric and Bell Laboratories in the United States.
Engineers such as H.T. Friis and E. Bruce developed theories and antenna types that
are still widely used today.
The seminal work of these and other pioneers is constantly evolving, through
developments in radar in the 1950s to satellite communications in the 1960s and 1970s
and with the aid of miniaturisation in electronics to modern developments in adaptive
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xi

Preface xi

antennas for base station and multiband antennas for personal mobile communication
wireless handsets that are currently taking place.
The motivation for this book is the recent huge expansion in mobile telecommunica-
tions, with the resultant scarcity of qualified RF specialists. One of the key areas of these
systems and perhaps the least understood is the point of entry or exit of a wireless
signal to and from the system, i.e. the antenna. Engineers with a working knowledge of
the basic fundamentals of these structures are increasingly in demand. Their scarcity
is compounded by the fact that many university undergraduate programmes have dropped
electromagnetic field courses in favour of more digital signal-processing type of activ-
ities. Consequently, this book is intended to act as an interpretational guide to the many
volumes of excellent (but for the beginner sometimes hard to digest) material that exist
in classical textbooks on the subject of electromagnetic waves. Thus it is hoped that
this book will facilitate the basis for a study of the concepts that underpin antenna
theory and techniques.
The structure of the material is broadly as follows:
l basic concept of radiation and the elementary building block for linear antenna
modelling;
l plane wave propagation and power flow;
l basic antenna definitions and the concept of the linear dipole antenna;
l single and multiple dipole antenna radiation pattern formation;
l antenna systems and related characterisation methods;
l basic antenna-matching techniques;
l some popular antenna types.

The text is not meant to be a replacement for the many excellent textbooks on antenna
theory that currently exist. It is meant to act as a detailed first reference or as the core
of a training tool for those undergraduates, postgraduates or engineers wishing to receive
the fundamental theoretical underpinning required for a fruitful appreciation of this
rewarding subject.

V.F. Fusco
November 2004
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xii

List of principle symbols

α attenuation coefficient, phase lead or lag used to steer an antenna pattern

β, k wave number
∆ power splitter coupling coefficient
εr relative delectric constant
εo permittivity of free space 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
µo permeability of free space 4π × 10−7 H/m
φ asimuth angle
Γ reflection coefficient
λ free-space wavelength
θ elevation angle
σ conductivity
τ tilt angle for polarisation ellipse
η wave impedance of free space, white noise power, antenna radiation
efficiency
ω angular frequency in rads/sec
ψ phase delay due to spatially displayed elements,
transmission line propagation constant
wavelength
* complex conjugate
Ae effective antenna aperture
| AR | axial ratio of an ellipse
B bandwidth in Hertz, shunt admittance
B′, BN noise equivalent bandwidth
c velocity of electromagnetic wave propagation, 3 × 108 m/s
C capacitance
D antenna directivity
d array element separation
dBi decibels relative to an isotropic source

xii
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xiii

List of principle symbols xiii

dBm decibels relative to 1 mW

EIRP effective isotropic radiated power
Emax maximum radiated electric field
Er radial component of electric field
Ex,y x,y directed component of electric field
Eθ elevation component of electric field
Eφ azimuth component of electric field
F noise factor
F(θ ) pattern multiplication factor
G antenna gain, shunt conductance
GR gain of receive antenna
GT gain of transmit antenna
G/T gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio
Gx( f ) Noise power at filter input
h height of microstrip substrate
he effective length of antenna
H( f ) filter impulse response
Hz Hertz
Hφ azimuthal component of magnetic field
I0, I(o) antenna terminal current excitation
I(z) wire antenna current distribution
k Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
leff effective length of antenna
L attenuator loss, inductance
LI insertion loss
MDS minimum discernible signal level
na added noise power
no output noise power
Nf noise figure
Pinc incident power
Pn available noise power
PR power received by antenna
PT power transmitted by antenna
q charge on electron
Q quality factor
r distance to observation point
rn nth clearance radius in Fresnel region
R conductor resistance, series resistance
RL antenna ohmic loss
Rrad radiation resistance
Sij s- parameter for port ij
S/N signal-to-noise ratio
T absolute temperature in Kelvin
Te effective noise temperature
TN Tchebyscheff polynomial
Tsys system noise temperature
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xiv

xiv List of principle symbols

vp phase velocity
Vij open circuit voltage induced on antenna i by a signal from antenna j
Voc antenna open-circuit terminal voltage
VSWR voltage standing wave ratio
xn nth antenna array element separation
Y noise power ratio
Z antenna input impedance
Zij mutual impedance between two antennas
Z0 characteristic impedance
Zs sending end impedance
ZT terminating impedance
B magnetic flux density
E electric field vector
H magnetic field vector
J current density
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xv

Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to thank all of those who have contributed directly
and indirectly to the creation of this book. Thanks are due to Lorraine Irvine and Joanne
Banford for their typing of the manuscript. To my wife Cathy, my son Adam and daugh-
ter Kathryn for the support and patience they have shown me.

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figure 4.15 based on Applied Electromagnetism, 1st edition, p. 195 and Fig. 7.26, by
L. Shen and J. Kong, © 1983, Figures 5.9 and 5.10 and Equations (5.116)–(5.130)
from Engineering Applications of Electromagnetic Theory, 1st edition, pp. 406–11,
by S. Liao, © 1988, reprinted with permission of Brooks/Cole, an imprint of the
Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson Learning, www.thomsonrights.com, fax
800 730 2215; Figure 4.16 and text pp. 118, inclusive of Equations (4.33)–(4.39), and
Equations (5.69)–(5.79) and (5.80)–(5.82) based on Antenna Engineering Handbook,
1st edition, Fig. 2.15 and pp. 2.20–2.22, 34.29–34.30 and 34.14–34.15, © 1961 by
the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., reproduced with permission of The McGraw-
Hill Companies (Jasik, H. 1961); Equations (1.20)–(1.34) based on ‘Basic sources of
electric and magnetic fields newly examined,’ IEEE Antennas and Propagation
Magazine, Vol. 43, No. 1, February 2001, pp. 31–5, © 2001 IEEE (Bennett, W. S.
2001); Equations (4.41)–(4.56) and Section 4.6 based on Electromagnetic Waves and
Radiating Systems, 2nd edition, pp. 382, 387–8 and 536–8, Prentice-Hall, Inc., repro-
duced with permission of Professor Keith Balmain (Jordan, E. C. and Balmain, K. G.
1968); Equation (5.33) and Section 5.2 based on Field and Waves in Communication
Electronics, pp. 716–19, copyright © 1965 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., reprinted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (Ramo, S., Winnery, J. R. and Van Duzer, T.
1965).

xv
FOA_A01.qxd 8/3/04 12:26 PM Page xvi

xvi Acknowledgements

Section 5.6 based on Analog Line-of-Sight Radio Links: A Test Manual, Section 8.3.2,
Prentice-Hall International, © 1987 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd (Townsend,
A. A. R. 1987); Section 7.4 based on and reprinted with permission from Microstrip
Antennas [7.6], pp. 43, 46, 49–51, 57, 64–6, by I. J. Bahl and P. B. Bhartia, © 1980,
Artech House, Inc., Norwood, MA, USA, www.artechhouse.com.

In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of the copyright material,
and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
FOA_C01.qxd 8/2/04 3:15 PM Page 1

Chapter 1

Basic concepts

In order to understand the basic principles upon which the operation of antennas rely,
it is essential to have an appreciation of how radiation occurs. A simple explanation
that shows how an accelerated charge gives rise to radiation is therefore presented
first.
This concept is then extended to demonstrate how in the presence of a conductor of
short but finite length the radiation from the conductor will be distributed preferenti-
ally in space. Examination of this apparently simple structure will yield considerable
insight into the behaviour of more complex antennas and arrays of antennas. This basic
study also aids the comprehension of the field behaviour close to and far from the
basic radiation element, the Hertzian dipole, named after Henrich Hertz (1857–94),
who demonstrated the propagation of electromagnetic waves through space [1] and
who is credited with the invention of the first antennas.

1.1 Radiation

When a time-varying voltage or current is applied to a conductor, free electrons are

accelerated. These electrons are able to travel in the spaces between atoms under the
influence of the exciting voltage, or current, applied to the conductor. If the current
or voltage is alternating, then electrons at a given location on the conductor move back
and forward in sympathy with the disturbing force. The acceleration (or deceleration)
of these electrons causes radiation to occur [2]. To see why this happens, consider the
effect of a single electron with charge −q C moving along a straight piece of wire.
As the charge is accelerated a current will be formed, since by definition current is
the rate of change of charge.
As this current flows then a magnetic field, H, will be set up whose sense is defined
by the right-hand screw rule (Figure 1.1). Here the magnetic field lines, H, form closed
loops. Electric field lines, E, come from infinity to the charge, −q, as lines of flux,

1
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