Hardware Support Evolution in BESS
High-Performance Power Converters
Early battery energy storage systems (BESS) and electric vehicles (EVs) relied on conventional silicon-
based converters and low-frequency topologies. Legacy inverters and DC–DC converters were
constrained by silicon (Si) devices that limit switching frequency, power density, and efficiency. For
example, Si-based switches typically achieve ≤98% conversion efficiency and require bulky passive
components, leading to heavy and thermally stressed designs 1 . Low breakdown voltages and poor
thermal stability of Si devices also restricted achievable voltage and power levels in fast-charging and
grid-tied applications 1 . In addition, simple two-level converter topologies imposed high harmonic
distortion and low scalability for megawatt-scale BESS.
Contemporary systems exploit wide-bandgap (WBG) semiconductors (SiC, GaN, Ga₂O₃, etc.) and
advanced topologies to overcome these limitations 1 2 . Silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs and gallium
nitride (GaN) transistors enable switching at several hundred kHz with minimal losses. In EV traction
and charger inverters, SiC devices push efficiencies toward 99% (versus ~97–98% with Si IGBTs) and
permit compact, high-frequency designs 3 4 . For example, an 800 V SiC inverter achieves ~99% peak
efficiency and 32 kHz switching, extending EV range by ~7% over IGBT designs 3 4 . GaN devices
likewise offer very low gate and output charge, enabling faster switching and higher power density in
on-board bidirectional AC/DC and DC/DC chargers 5 3 . Multi-level and resonant converter
topologies have matured as well; neutral-point-clamped (NPC) and flying-capacitor (FC) inverters now
handle high DC-link voltages (≥1 kV) with reduced harmonics, benefiting large-scale BESS. Reviews
report that GaN-based bi-directional on-board chargers for 400–800 V EV packs achieve lower
conduction loss and higher power density compared to Si equivalents 5 . In grid-scale BESS, SiC-
enabled inverters (often 1500 V or higher) support megawatt outputs with >99% efficiency 4 ,
providing dynamic grid-forming capability and near-constant power at elevated temperatures.
Looking forward, ultrawide-bandgap materials (e.g. Ga₂O₃, AlGaN) promise even higher voltage
operation and thermal robustness 2 . Advanced packaging (3D integration, SiC/Si hybrid modules) and
high-frequency magnetics (nano-crystalline cores) will further shrink converter size. Artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are beginning to influence converter control: data-driven
algorithms can optimize switching patterns for loss minimization and predictive fault protection. Smart
firmware and digital twins will enable adaptive biasing of WBG transistors for maximum efficiency
under varying load. From an application perspective, EV converters prioritize power density, high
switching speed, and bidirectionality (for V2G), whereas grid-storage converters emphasize scalability,
robustness, and grid-interfacing functions (e.g. reactive support). In both domains, modern converters
far surpass legacy designs in efficiency and dynamic performance. For example, next-generation SiC
converters achieve >98.5% efficiency in traction inverters 3 and >99% in large energy storage
inverters 4 , compared to ~96–97% for older IGBT-based designs. Moreover, the adoption of multi-
megawatt modular converters allows grid storage systems to be scaled by paralleling subunits, while EV
chargers and traction inverters benefit from higher voltage architectures (e.g. 800 V stacks) enabled by
WBG devices. These advances collectively yield converters that are more efficient, compact, and capable
of smart control (e.g. sinusoidal PWM with wide bandwidth and fast protection) than their predecessors.
1
Thermal Management
Thermal management in early BESS and EV packs was often limited to passive air-cooling or simple
liquid loops. Legacy systems typically used chassis or module-mounted fans and heat sinks, which offer
only moderate heat removal capability. The low thermal conductivity of air and uneven airflow lead to
non-uniform cell temperatures and hotspots under high-power cycling 6 . These limitations become
critical under fast charging or rapid discharge, risking accelerated aging or thermal runaway. For large
stationary BESS, passive or fan-assisted cooling is similarly challenged by high cell counts and limited
airflow paths. In short, traditional thermal designs struggle to maintain all cells within tight
temperature bands during peak demand or high ambient conditions 6 .
Modern BESS employ a variety of active cooling strategies and advanced materials to address these
challenges. Liquid cooling (direct or indirect) has become commonplace: cold plates or channels
circulate coolant (water/glycol or dielectric fluids) through the battery module. Such systems achieve far
higher heat transfer coefficients than air 6 . For instance, mini-channel liquid-cooling setups can delay
or even suppress thermal propagation at modest flow rates 7 . Studies report that a suitably designed
liquid-cooling plate can lower the maximum cell temperature by >9% and improve uniformity by several
°C compared to air cooling 8 . Phase-change materials (PCMs) and PCM composites (with enhanced
conductivity via graphite or metal foams) have also been integrated. Composite PCM cooling combined
with counter-flow liquid channels has demonstrated dramatic reductions in peak temperature (e.g.
ΔT≈45 °C lower than baseline) and nearly isothermal behavior across cells 9 . Immersion cooling
(submerging cells in dielectric fluid) and water-mist spray systems are being evaluated for specialized
applications where very high heat flux removal is needed. Heat pipes and vapor chambers are used to
spread heat within modules, often in hybrid configurations. For example, heat pipes paired with
intermittent air or spray cooling can slash maximum cell temperatures by >29 °C while improving
uniformity 10 . Active thermal insulation (e.g. aerogel layers) is sometimes combined with liquid cooling
to further suppress thermal runaway propagation 7 .
Future directions combine novel materials and AI/ML optimization. High-conductivity PCMs (e.g. metal
matrix composites, nanoparticle-enhanced waxes) and porous thermally conductive inserts promise
greater heat buffering without excessive weight. Solid-state cooling (thermoelectric or electrocaloric
coolers) is under research for compact modules. Importantly, AI-driven thermal control is emerging:
predictive models adjust coolant flow and thermal regulation in real time. Machine learning algorithms
have been used to optimize coolant pump speeds and routing, yielding significant gains. For example, a
surrogate-model based ML optimization achieved a 126% increase in cooling system energy efficiency
while keeping battery temperatures within safe limits 11 . Neural-network models and genetic
algorithms have also been applied to design liquid and immersion-cooling layouts that reduce peak
temperature by ~8 K and temperature spread by over 70% 11 . In EVs, compactness and weight drive
different trade-offs than in grid BESS. EV thermal systems are designed for variable ambient conditions
and high C-rates (often 2–5C continuous), necessitating high heat flux removal with minimal volume
and power draw. In contrast, stationary BESS can use larger chillers, pumped loops, or even building
HVAC integration, focusing on operational efficiency and cost. In all cases, modern thermal designs far
outperform legacy air-cooling. For example, a high-power EV battery with optimized liquid cooling can
sustain fast discharge with <5 °C temperature rise, whereas an air-cooled pack might see >20 °C rise
under similar load. Similarly, grid storage modules using liquid or immersion cooling operate within a
few degrees variance across cells during full-power operation, ensuring longevity and safety.
2
Smart Sensing and Monitoring
Historically, battery monitoring in BESS relied on a few voltage, current, and temperature sensors per
module or pack. Early BMS (battery management systems) used thermistors on cell surfaces and
measured pack voltage and current to estimate state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH). These
external measurements are often insufficient for precise state estimation: surface sensors cannot
capture internal cell conditions and are subject to electromagnetic interference (EMI) 12 . As a result,
legacy BMS algorithms could suffer from limited accuracy and slow response to incipient faults.
The current generation of BESS employs “smart” sensing at multiple levels. Cell-level instrumentation
now includes fiber-optic sensors, microelectromechanical (MEMS) devices, and chemical detectors. Fiber
Bragg grating (FBG) sensors and distributed optical fibers have been embedded within cells to measure
local temperature and strain with high precision 13 . Such optical sensors are immune to EMI and can
be multiplexed, allowing dozens of sensing points along one fiber 13 . Research has demonstrated that
embedded fiber sensors can directly monitor internal cell temperature, electrode expansion, and even
gas byproducts, providing early warning of degradation 13 . In parallel, acoustic/ultrasonic sensors
detect mechanical changes in the electrodes or electrolyte, and impedance spectroscopy probes
electrochemical state. Emerging gas sensors (e.g. CO₂ detectors) can identify off-gassing that precedes
thermal runaway 14 . “Smart” battery designs even integrate pressure, humidity, and optical sensors to
capture a full multi-parameter profile of the cell. At the pack level, CAN-bus or Ethernet networks collect
high-fidelity data (voltage, current, temperatures, vibration) at high rates.
Future BMS trends call for even richer sensing and data analysis. Smart sensing now includes
electrochemical and optical signals alongside mechanical and acoustic cues 15 . For instance, optical
cameras or LiDAR could inspect cell surfaces for defects, and fiber networks may span entire racks. Big-
data techniques will be applied to process these large sensor streams, enabling predictive state
estimation and anomaly detection. In EVs, weight and cost constraints limit sensor count, so multi-
function sensors and wireless networks are under development. For grid-scale systems, extensive
sensing is feasible; redundant sensor arrays can achieve high reliability in safety-critical installations. AI
and ML are increasingly used to fuse multi-sensor information. Neural-network and decision-tree
models have shown R²>0.99 accuracy in predicting cell voltage/temperature from combined sensor
inputs 11 . ML-optimized sensor fusion can reduce temperature forecasting error and enable proactive
thermal management 11 . In terms of performance, smart sensing dramatically improves SOC/SOH
accuracy and fault detection. For example, a fiber-based multi-point sensing system can detect a failing
cell by its slight temperature anomaly before any voltage drop occurs, a capability absent in legacy BMS.
Scalability remains a challenge: large BESS may have thousands of cells, requiring networked or
wireless sensing to avoid wiring complexity. However, advances in low-cost optical fibers and wireless
sensor nodes (BLE, LoRaWAN) are enabling practical deployment. In summary, smart sensing
transforms BESS from passive storage to instrumented systems, with superior diagnostic resolution and
enabling data-driven control.
Modern hardware evolution in converters, thermal systems, and sensing is closely coupled with
intelligent energy management. High-performance converters and advanced cooling not only improve
raw efficiency and power density, but also provide the fast, controllable platforms required for smart
control algorithms. Likewise, distributed sensors feed real-time data into energy management systems.
The synergy is evident: WBG converters allow finer control (higher bandwidth modulation and smoother
power flow), which enables grid services like frequency regulation; sophisticated thermal control
maintains batteries in optimal conditions, preserving capacity and allowing aggressive dispatch; and
rich sensing coupled with AI permits advanced SOC/SOH estimation and predictive maintenance.
Together, these hardware advances support the integration of AI-driven battery management and
3
control strategies in modern BESS, ensuring that storage assets operate efficiently, safely, and
adaptively in both EV and grid applications 16 15 .
1 (PDF) Design and Performance Analysis of Ultra-Wide Bandgap Power Devices Based EV Fast
Charger Using Bi-Directional Power Converters
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369010585_Design_and_Performance_Analysis_of_Ultra-
Wide_Bandgap_Power_Devices_Based_EV_Fast_Charger_Using_Bi-Directional_Power_Converters
2 Microsoft Word - AMMTO WBG PE Strategic Framework_DRAFT
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2025-01/AMMTO%20Draft%20WBG%20PE%20Strategic%20Framework_FINAL.pdf
3 Silicon carbide (SiC) inverter extends EV range by over 7% - Power Electronics News
https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/silicon-carbide-sic-inverter-extends-ev-range-by-over-7/
4 SMA America releases 99.2% efficient grid-scale battery storage inverter – pv magazine USA
https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2025/03/20/sma-america-releases-99-2-efficient-grid-scale-battery-storage-inverter/
5(PDF) A Comprehensive Review of GaN-Based Bi-directional On-Board Charger Topologies and
Modulation Methods
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370041340_A_Comprehensive_Review_of_GaN-Based_Bi-directional_On-
Board_Charger_Topologies_and_Modulation_Methods
6 Advances in the Battery Thermal Management Systems of Electric Vehicles for Thermal Runaway
7
Prevention and Suppression
https://www.mdpi.com/2313-0105/11/6/216
8 9 10 11Design of a liquid cooled battery thermal management system using neural networks,
16
cheetah optimizer and salp swarm algorithm | Scientific Reports
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-15359-0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=777cc218-a470-488e-
b3c9-23d514fd1b04
12 13 Fiber Optic Sensing Technologies for Battery Management Systems and Energy Storage
14
Applications - PMC
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7923102/
15 Battery Energy Storage Systems: A Review of Energy Management Systems and Health Metrics
https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/17/5/1250
