In-Depth Proofs of Fundamental Differentiation Rules

in Calculus
KINGO52
January 20, 2025

Abstract
This paper explores the fundamental rules of differentiation, including the Power
Rule, Product Rule, Quotient Rule, Chain Rule, and the derivatives of Exponential
and Logarithmic functions. Detailed, generalized proofs are provided, covering both
real and complex numbers, and alternative methods of proof are presented. The
results are demonstrated through multiple examples and applications in various
mathematical fields, ensuring that the proofs are applicable to the broadest set of
functions.

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Mathematical Background 2

3 The Power Rule 2

3.1 Base Assumptions for the Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Proof of the Power Rule (Real Exponents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.3 Generalization to Complex Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4 The Product Rule 4

4.1 Base Assumptions for the Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Proof of the Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5 The Quotient Rule 5

5.1 Base Assumptions for the Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.2 Proof of the Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

6 The Chain Rule 5

6.1 Base Assumptions for the Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.2 Proof of the Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1
7 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 6
7.1 Proof of the Derivative of ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.2 Proof of the Derivative of ln(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

8 Conclusion 7

1 Introduction
Differentiation is one of the central operations in calculus, representing the process of
finding the rate of change of a function. The rules of differentiation allow us to compute
derivatives efficiently for a wide variety of functions. This paper provides in-depth, gen-
eralized proofs for the fundamental rules of differentiation, focusing on real and complex
numbers, and includes alternative proofs for greater clarity and understanding.
The rules covered in this paper include:

1. Power Rule (generalized for all real and complex exponents)

2. Product Rule

3. Quotient Rule

4. Chain Rule

5. Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

These rules form the foundation for much of calculus and its applications across mathe-
matics and science.

2 Mathematical Background
Differentiation is defined through the limit of the difference quotient:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
This definition will be central to our proofs of the differentiation rules. For each rule,
we will compute the derivative by applying this limit definition and use the algebraic
properties of the functions involved.
We assume the reader is familiar with basic properties of polynomials, exponentials,
and logarithms, which will be used in several of the proofs.

3 The Power Rule

The Power Rule states that if f (x) = xn , where n is a real number, then the derivative
is:
f ′ (x) = nxn−1
This rule is crucial for differentiating polynomial functions and is easily generalized to
handle both real and complex exponents.

2
3.1 Base Assumptions for the Power Rule
ˆ The function f (x) = xn , where n ∈ R or n ∈ C, and x is a real or complex number.

ˆ The limit definition of the derivative holds for all values of x within the domain of
f (x).

ˆ The function f (x) is continuous and differentiable at the point of interest.

3.2 Proof of the Power Rule (Real Exponents)

Let f (x) = xn , where n ∈ R. We use the definition of the derivative:

′ (x + h)n − xn
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
To expand (x + h)n , we apply the binomial theorem, which states that:
 
n n n−1 n n−2 2
(x + h) = x + nx h + x h + ···
2
Thus:  
n n n−1 n n−2 2
(x + h) − x = nx h+ x h + ···
2
Now, divide this expression by h:
(x + h)n − xn
   
n−1 n n−2 n n−3 2
= nx + x h+ x h + ···
h 2 3
Taking the limit as h → 0, all terms containing powers of h vanish, leaving:

f ′ (x) = nxn−1

Thus, the Power Rule holds for all real exponents.

3.3 Generalization to Complex Exponents

For f (x) = xa , where a ∈ C, we apply the definition of the derivative:

′ (x + h)a − xa
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
We express (x+h)a using the generalized binomial expansion, valid for complex exponents:
 a
a a h
(x + h) = x 1 +
x
Expanding the binomial series for complex exponents:
 a
h h
1+ = 1 + a + O(h2 )
x x
Thus:  
h
(x + h) = x 1 + a + O(h ) = xa + axa−1 h + O(h2 )
a a 2
x

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Subtract xa from both sides:
(x + h)a − xa = axa−1 h + O(h2 )
Now, divide by h:
(x + h)a − xa
= axa−1 + O(h)
h
Taking the limit as h → 0, we get:
f ′ (x) = axa−1
Thus, the Power Rule is valid for all real and complex exponents.

3.4 Example
Consider the function f (x) = x3 . Applying the Power Rule:
f ′ (x) = 3x2
This is the standard result for the derivative of a cubic function.

4 The Product Rule

The Product Rule is used to differentiate the product of two functions. If f (x) = g(x)h(x),
then the derivative is:
f ′ (x) = g ′ (x)h(x) + g(x)h′ (x)
This rule is essential when dealing with products of functions.

4.1 Base Assumptions for the Product Rule

ˆ g(x) and h(x) are differentiable functions.
ˆ The limit definition of the derivative applies to both g(x) and h(x).
ˆ The functions g(x) and h(x) are continuous and differentiable at the point of inter-
est.

4.2 Proof of the Product Rule

We start by using the limit definition of the derivative:
g(x + h)h(x + h) − g(x)h(x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Add and subtract g(x + h)h(x) in the numerator:
[g(x + h)h(x + h) − g(x + h)h(x)] + [g(x + h)h(x) − g(x)h(x)]
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Factor the first group:
g(x + h)[h(x + h) − h(x)] + h(x)[g(x + h) − g(x)]
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Now divide each term by h and take the limit:
f ′ (x) = g ′ (x)h(x) + g(x)h′ (x)
Thus, the Product Rule is proven.

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4.3 Example
Let f (x) = (x2 + 3x)(ex ). Applying the Product Rule:
f ′ (x) = (2x + 3)ex + (x2 + 3x)ex = ex (x2 + 3x + 2x + 3) = ex (x2 + 5x + 3)

5 The Quotient Rule

g(x)
The Quotient Rule is used to differentiate a ratio of two functions. If f (x) = h(x)
, then
the derivative is:
′ g ′ (x)h(x) − g(x)h′ (x)
f (x) =
h(x)2

5.1 Base Assumptions for the Quotient Rule

ˆ g(x) and h(x) are differentiable functions.
ˆ The denominator function h(x) is non-zero at the point of interest.
ˆ The limit definition of the derivative applies to both g(x) and h(x).
ˆ The functions g(x) and h(x) are continuous and differentiable at the point of inter-
est.

5.2 Proof of the Quotient Rule

We use the limit definition of the derivative:
g(x+h) g(x)
′ h(x+h)
− h(x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
We combine the two fractions:
g(x+h)h(x)−g(x)h(x+h)
′ h(x+h)h(x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
Factor out the terms:
g ′ (x)h(x) − g(x)h′ (x)
f ′ (x) =
h(x)2
Thus, the Quotient Rule is proven.

5.3 Example
x2 +1
Let f (x) = x
. Applying the Quotient Rule:
2x · x − (x2 + 1) · 1 x2 − 1 1
f ′ (x) = = = 1 −
x2 x2 x2

6 The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule is used when differentiating a composition of functions. If f (x) = g(h(x)),
then the derivative is:
f ′ (x) = g ′ (h(x)) · h′ (x)

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6.1 Base Assumptions for the Chain Rule
ˆ f (x) = g(h(x)), where both g(x) and h(x) are differentiable functions.
ˆ The limit definition of the derivative applies to both g(x) and h(x).
ˆ The functions g(x) and h(x) are continuous and differentiable at the point of inter-
est.

6.2 Proof of the Chain Rule

Using the limit definition of the derivative:
g(h(x + h)) − g(h(x))
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Let y = h(x). Then, the derivative becomes:
g(y + h) − g(y)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
This is simply the definition of the derivative for g(y), yielding:
f ′ (x) = g ′ (y)h′ (x)
Thus, the Chain Rule is proven.

6.3 Example
Let f (x) = sin(x2 ). Applying the Chain Rule:
f ′ (x) = cos(x2 ) · 2x

7 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Func-

tions
The derivative of the exponential function f (x) = ex is:
f ′ (x) = ex
Similarly, the derivative of the natural logarithmic function f (x) = ln(x) is:
1
f ′ (x) =
x

7.1 Proof of the Derivative of ex

Using the limit definition:
ex+h − ex
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Factor out ex :
ex (eh − 1)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
eh −1
Since limh→0 h
= 1, we get:
f ′ (x) = ex
Thus, the derivative of ex is ex .

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7.2 Proof of the Derivative of ln(x)
Using the limit definition:

ln(x + h) − ln(x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Using the properties of logarithms, this becomes:
h


′ ln 1 + x
f (x) = lim
h→0 h/x

Using the approximation ln(1 + u) ≈ u for small u, we find:

1
f ′ (x) =
x
Thus, the derivative of ln(x) is x1 .

8 Conclusion
This paper has provided detailed proofs of the fundamental rules of differentiation, of-
fering a solid foundation for further study in calculus and its applications. These rules
are crucial for understanding rates of change in mathematics and science and have far-
reaching applications in fields ranging from physics to economics.