NATIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

M.Sc. Clinical Psychology

Session: 2025-2027

INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS TA-1

Name: Pallavi Bisht

Food Practices

In Ayurveda, "Ahar" (आहार) refers to food and diet, which is considered one of the most
important factors for maintaining health and balance in the body. Ayurveda emphasizes the
idea that proper nourishment is essential for physical well-being, mental clarity, and spiritual
growth. Ahara is the first and foremost pillar of Ayurveda, which emphasizes the importance
of diet and lifestyle in maintaining health and harmony with nature. The word ‘Ahara’ is
derived from Sanskrit and means anything that is taken into the body through ingestion,
including both food and medicine. According to the ancient sage Chakrapani, Ahara includes
both diet and drugs, as both are essential for health. In a broader sense, Ahara refers to all
substances that help maintain growth, provide nourishment, and promote overall well-being.
The fundamental purpose of Ahara is not just to satisfy hunger but to prevent diseases and
enhance the body’s natural balance by maintaining the health of the body and mind.

In Ayurveda, Ahara is divided into three important categories as per Sushruta Samhita:

1.​ Ekanta Hitakara – These are substances that are always beneficial for the body, such
as water, ghee, milk, and rice. These foods help maintain proper health and balance in
the body.
2.​ Ekanta Ahitakara – These are substances that are always harmful, like poison
(visha) and excessive fire (agni). These foods must be avoided.
3.​ Hitahitakara – These foods are situational, meaning they can be beneficial for one
person or condition but harmful for another. For example, oil (taila) is beneficial for
someone with Vata dosha but harmful for a person with Pitta imbalance. Therefore,
Ahara is always recommended according to one’s Prakriti (body constitution), season,
and health condition.

Further, Ahara is classified based on three mental and physical tendencies from the Bhagavad
Gita:

●​ Satvik Ahara: Clean, fresh, easy to digest, and promotes clarity of mind. Examples:
Fresh cow’s milk, fruits, jaggery, and freshly prepared food.
●​ Rajasik Ahara: Highly spiced, greasy, and promotes activity and passion. Examples:
Meat, fish, eggs, pickles, garlic, and onion.
●​ Tamasik Ahara: Stale, overcooked, and harmful for mind and body. Examples:
Alcohol, frozen food, microwaved food, pork, beef, and processed food.
Ahara is not simply about calorie intake but about nourishing the body according to
individual constitution (Prakriti). Ayurveda emphasizes a balanced intake of the six tastes
(sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent) in every meal to promote health and
prevent disease.

Traditional Indian Knowledge System on Food and Health

Since time immemorial, the Indian knowledge system has preserved and transmitted its
wisdom through oral traditions and scriptural writings. This ancient system has provided
valuable guidance to communities across India regarding food and health, emphasizing
concepts like Pathyam (wholesome, suitable foods) and Apathyam (foods or habits harmful
in specific conditions). These teachings are based on understanding the body, climate, and life
circumstances, allowing individuals to make the right food choices for balanced health.
Ancient societies were keen observers of nature and climatic changes, and they adapted their
diet according to these shifts. The concept of Agni, the digestive fire within the body, plays a
central role in Ayurveda. It is considered vital for processing food into nourishment, and its
strength must be maintained by mindful food choices. Additionally, the external Agni, such
as the Sun, was also seen as essential for health. For example, in summer, buttermilk was
traditionally consumed to cool the body and aid digestion, showing how food practices were
intelligently aligned with environmental conditions.

Classification of Foods According to the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita provides a psychological and spiritual framework for food classification,
emphasizing the profound connection between food and the mind. According to this
classification:

●​ Satvic Foods (Goodness) are those that are fresh, light, nourishing, and easy to
digest. These include whole grains, dairy products like milk and ghee, fresh fruits, and
vegetables. Satvic foods promote immunity, clarity of mind, balance of emotions, and
vitality, helping individuals stay mentally and physically strong.​

●​ Rajasika Foods (Passion) include foods that are greasy, highly spiced, excessively
salty, or sour, such as pickles, garlic, onion, and non-vegetarian items like meat and
fish. These foods tend to overstimulate the body and mind, increasing aggression,
restlessness, and desire, which may lead to mental disturbances or unhealthy habits.​

●​ Tamasika Foods (Ignorance) include overcooked, stale, decomposed, or heavily

processed foods like alcohol, beef, pork, frozen food, and microwaved meals. These
dull the mind, promote lethargy, laziness, depression, and disease, ultimately
hindering mental and physical well-being.

Ancient Food Practices: Harappan Civilization

Scientific studies, including those published by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and
the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP), reveal that the ancient Harappan
Civilization (around 2600 BCE) had advanced knowledge of nutritious food. Excavations in
Bijnor, Rajasthan, uncovered handmade multi-grain laddoos crafted from barley, wheat,
chickpeas, and oilseeds. These protein-rich laddoos were large and designed as a staple
energy source, indicating that even ancient civilizations understood the importance of a
balanced diet. Such discoveries reflect that the practice of preparing foods with
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and probiotic properties is not new but deeply rooted in
Indian tradition.
Modern Challenges and Ancient Solutions

In today’s fast-paced world, children and adults are often drawn to high-calorie junk foods
like pizzas, chips, instant noodles, and carbonated drinks. These modern food choices are
typically high in unhealthy fats, salt, and sugars, and lack essential nutrients, potentially
leading to long-term health issues like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. In contrast,
traditional Indian diets offer many creative and healthy alternatives. Millets, for example, are
highly nutritious and can be prepared in diverse ways—such as upma, roti, dosa, laddoos,
soups, and cakes. These preparations not only provide fiber, protein, and essential minerals
but are also easy to digest and promote long-term well-being. By revisiting ancient dietary
practices, we can integrate wholesome, nutrient-rich options into modern life.

Ayurvedic Guidelines on Food Intake (Aahara Vidhi)

The ancient Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita offers detailed guidelines on the proper way of
consuming food, known as Aahara Vidhi. These principles emphasize that a person should
consider individual factors such as age, gender, physical activity, medical condition, and
especially digestive fire (Agni) when choosing what and how much to eat. The famous
Ayurvedic saying shifts the general belief from “We are what we eat” to “We are what we
digest,” highlighting that food only nourishes the body if it is properly digested and absorbed.
A balanced meal should contain the six tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent,
astringent) to ensure not only satisfaction but also a medicinal effect, promoting health,
immunity, and mental balance. Rather than focusing only on calorie counting, Ayurveda
encourages food choices that kindle the individual’s Agni and maintain equilibrium, reducing
disease susceptibility.

Antagonistic Food Combinations (Viruddha Ahara)

Ayurveda also warns about Viruddha Ahara, which refers to antagonistic food combinations
that disturb the balance of bio-energies (Doshas) in the body and damage tissues over time.
Some food combinations, while harmless individually, can be detrimental when consumed
together, leading to indigestion, lethargy, acidity, or long-term illness. Examples include
combining milk with fish or sour fruits with dairy. Knowledge of these harmful combinations
is crucial for making informed choices, especially in today’s context, where processed and
fast foods are often consumed without understanding their effects. By avoiding such
combinations, individuals can maintain better health, mental clarity and prevent future
complications.

Food quantities

The quantity of food required by each individual varies based on factors such as age, physical
activity, gender, health condition, and digestive capacity. For optimal health, it is important to
consume neither too much nor too little food. Ayurveda describes two types of food quantity:
Sarvagraha Rasi, which is the total quantity of all foods consumed in a meal and depends on
the person’s digestive fire, and Parigraha Rasi, which refers to the portion size of each food
item tailored to the individual’s nutritional needs, health goals, and ability to digest. Ayurveda
also provides specific guidelines for utilizing stomach capacity during a meal, recommending
that one-third of the stomach be filled with heavy-to-digest food, one-third with light foods
and beverages, and the remaining third left empty to aid proper digestion and prevent
diseases. Signs of the correct quantity of food intake include feeling comfortable and light
after the meal, without heaviness or sluggishness, indicating that digestion is functioning
well. This balanced approach helps maintain health and reduce disease susceptibility.

Where Food Meets Mental Health

Our food choices, mood and mental health are very interwoven. Our current mood drives
food choices. Our food choices can drive our mood and future choices. This impacts not only
our mental health; it can lead to other chronic diseases too. When the food choices are
consistently snack foods with few nutrients, we increase the risk of nutrition-related diseases
such as type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Some mental health conditions can cause changes
in appetite. Skipping meals can lead to deficiencies of important nutrients, making matters
worse. Cravings are also associated with mental health conditions. Carbohydrate cravings are
correlated with low serotonin levels. Promoting healthy levels of serotonin can be
accomplished by a healthy, balanced diet, which would decrease cravings.

Other research has shown that a healthy dietary pattern may be able to treat depression. This
research looked at the effect of a healthy dietary pattern on people who already had
depression. In this Australian study, the researchers compared the results of two different
groups of people with depression. Only one group was taught how to follow a healthy dietary
pattern. Researchers then looked to see if the changes in their diets improved their mood
compared with the group that was not taught to follow a healthy diet. The study showed that
people who followed a healthy dietary pattern for 3 months reduced their symptoms of
depression

Relevance and Perspective

In today’s busy world, where dieting is commonly reduced to counting calories or following
the latest fad diet, the Ayurvedic concept of Ahara is still highly relevant. We can have a
refreshing view of our health and overall wellness through Ahara, rather than reducing our
health to an arbitrary number in calories or other forms of deprivation. Ayurveda encourages
us to eat food according to our body type (Prakriti) and the seasons.

Today, we are living with many lifestyle diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart
problems due to the effects of processed food, a lack of balance in diet, and a
misunderstanding or ignorance of what our body needs. I believe Ayurvedic Ahara is truly a
preventative lifestyle because it allows you to stay away from problems through nutrition and
diet to be balanced with the individual's inner constitution and environmental conditions.

Moreover, mindful eating practices and using fresh, home-cooked, and natural food will also
help with overall emotional wellness, stress reduction, and immunity building—something
most people in the modern world need. The idea of Pancha-Mahayajna (involving nature,
humanity, the ancestors, teachers, and God) captures an ethical approach to food with a
holistic perspective that respects life, sustainability, and social well-being.

I am hopeful that an Ahara model built on Ayurvedic principles can help people return to
their bodies, generate conscious food habits, and move towards long-term health instead of
instant gratification. Moreover, I think Ayurveda teaches the values of food as medicine, the
core of balanced living, while surrounded by a society of fast food and a short-fix society.
Vedas and Upanishads
The Vedas are deemed the principal source of knowledge in the Indian tradition and are
recognised as Śruti (that which is heard), Apauruṣeya (not human-made), and Śāstra (as a
guide through teaching). The synonym for the Vedas is Agama and Āmnaya. It is thought that
Vedic knowledge is divinely revealed knowledge that sages were said to have "heard" while
in deep meditation. These sages, known as Mantradrastas (seers of the mantras), transmitted
their knowledge through oral transmission and from generation to generation. Although, as
with many deep traditions of oral transmission, there has been a loss of many Vedic mantras,
the oral transmission tradition radically persists, in some cases, even supplements or replaces
other textual references, such as the Rig Veda, clarifying the historical development of the
Vedic tradition.

The Vedas primarily consist of Mantras, which are hymns in praise of gods used during
rituals, and Brahmanas, which are instructional texts explaining how rituals should be
performed. The collection of mantras is called a Samhita, and the Brahmanas serve as
commentary to these mantras. The Brahmana portion is further divided into three parts:
Brahmanas, which explain the nature of rituals (Yajna); Aranyakas, which focus on
meditation, especially practiced while living in forests; and Upanisads, which reveal the
Absolute Truth and the path to liberation, known as Vedanta.

Historically, the Rig Veda Samhita is dated between 2500 to 1500 B.C., while the later
Samhitas, Brahmanas, and Upanisads developed between 1500 to 500 B.C. The Vedas are
often referred to as Veda Trayi (Three Vedas) – the Rig Veda (Fire – Agni), Yajur Veda (Air –
Vayu), and Sama Veda (Sun – Aditya). In addition, the Atharva Veda represents Soma,
considered the essential essence without which the other three cannot survive. According to
tradition, the great Sage Vyasa is credited with dividing the Vedic hymns into four parts: the
Rig Samhita, Yajur Samhita, Sama Samhita, and Atharva Samhita.

For a Vedic ritual to take place, it requires four Rtviks (roughly translated as Priests). They
are:
1.​ Hota – one who invokes the deity of a particular ritual by employing the invocatory
hymns as found in the Rig-Samhitas and the collections of such hymns is referred to
as Rig Veda. This is said to have been taught by Vyasa to Pela.
 2.​ Adhvaryu – one who performs the rituals as enjoined, and the relevant mantras are in
the Yajur-Samhit,a and the collection of this is known as Yajurved,a which was taught
to Vaimshampayana by Vyasa.
3.​ Udgatha – one who sings in high intonation and maintains the rhythm of chanting as
given in Samaveda, and this is taught by Vyasa to Jaimini.
4.​ Brahma – one who takes care of the entire proceedings of the ritual and suggests
compensatory acts in case of omissions and commissions and this was taught to
Sumantu by Vyasa. Thus, the four Vedas were propagated through these four disciples
of Vyasa.

The Vedic literature can be classified into the following categories:

●​ The four Vedas i.e., the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva, and their Samhitas.
●​ The Brahmanas
●​ The Aranyakas
●​ The Upanishads
Each Veda consists of four portions: Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanisads.

●​ The Rig Veda is the oldest and is a collection of hymns in metrical form, where ‘Rig’
means praise or eulogy. It has five branches – Shakala, Vaskala, Ashvalayana,
Samkhya, and Mandakayana – and contains Suktas (of four types: Richi, Devata,
Chanda, and Artha) organized into Mandalas, which further include Anuvakas and
mantras. The main Brahmanas of the Rig are the Aitareya and Shankhayana
Brahmanas, with corresponding Aranyakas and Upanisads such as Kausitaki and
Aitareya Upanisads.
●​ The Yajur Veda is known for its focus on rituals, presented mainly in prose. It is
divided into Krishna Yajurveda (a mix of mantras and Brahmanas) and Shukla
Yajurveda (mainly mantras). Only four branches of the Krishna Yajur survive today,
including Taittiriya and Maitrayani. Important Brahmanas include the Taittiriya
Brahmana and the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Aranyakas include Taittiriya Aranyaka
and Brihadaranyaka, which also contain Upanisadic portions. Prominent Upanisads
include Kathopanisad, Taittiriyopanisad, Brihadaranyaka, and Ishopanisad.
●​ The Samaveda is essentially the Rig Veda set to musical tunes, divided into the
Archika part (meanings of words) and the Ganam part (musical patterns). The Purva
Archika contains Agneya, Aindra, Pavamana parvas, and Aranyakas, while Uttara
Archika focuses on ritual practices. Three main branches of the Samaveda are
Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya. The music of Samaveda includes Veyaganam,
Aranyakaganam, Oohaganam, and Oohyaganam. Important Brahmanas include
Daivatam and Vamshabrahmanam. The Talavakara-Aranyaka and Upanisads such as
Chandogyopanisad and Kenopanisad are part of Samaveda.
●​ The Atharvaveda has nine branches, but only Shaunaka and Pippalada are available.
It includes three Samhitas: Aashi, Acharya, and Vidhiprayoga. The sole Brahmana is
the Gopatha Brahmana (with Purvagopatha and Uttaragopatha parts), and no
Aranyaka has been found. The prominent Upanisads of Atharvaveda are
Prashnopanisad, Mundakopanisad, and Mandukyopanisad.

Important commentators of the Vedas, especially on the Brahmana portions, include Sayana,
along with others like Skandasvami, Narayana, Madhavabhatta, Venkatamadhava,
Anandatirtha, and more. Their commentaries help in understanding the meanings of Vedic
words and reflect changing historical contexts.
The Brahmanas
The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and they
elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic meanings. Each
Veda has several Brahmanas. The two Brahmanas attached to the Rg-Veda are Aitareya
Brahmana and Kausitaki Brahmana. These were composed by Hotri-priests or an invoker (the
priest who recites mantras of the Rgveda at the sacrifices). The Sukla Yajurveda is appended
with Satapatha Brahmana, which recommends 'one hundred sacred paths' (Satapatha). It is
the most exhaustive and important of all the Brahmanas. The Gopatha Brahmana is appended
to the Atharvaveda. These Brahmanas, in fact, are the elaborate commentaries on the various
hymns is the Samhitas.

The Aranyaka
The word Aranyaka means 'the forest', and these are called 'forest books' written mainly for
the hermits and students living in the jungles. These are the concluding portions of the
Brahmanas or their appendices. A strict code of secrecy was maintained over the Aranyakas
as it was believed that the contents would spell danger if taught to the uninitiated. And hence
they were to be studied in the forest. They deal with mysticism and symbolism. They form
the natural transition of the Upanishads. They offer the bridge between Karma marga (way of
deeds), which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas, and the jnana marga (way of
knowledge,) which the Upanishads advocated.

The Upanishads: Meaning and Historical Context

The word Upanishad is derived from the root Upani-sad, which means "to sit down near
someone" denoting a student sitting at the feet of their guru to receive secret, spiritual
knowledge. Originally, the term referred to esoteric teachings passed by the guru to a selected
few, but today, it broadly refers to philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. Also called
Vedanta (the end of the Veda), the Upanishads mark the final phase of the Vedic period and
reveal the ultimate purpose of Vedic teachings. The national motto of India, Satyameva
Jayate, is taken from the Mundakopanishad.

Composed between 800 BCE and 400 BCE, the Upanishads represent a major shift from
ritualistic practices toward philosophical introspection. They emphasize the metaphysical
concepts of Brahman (the ultimate, impersonal reality) and Atman (the individual self),
teaching that realization of the unity of Atman and Brahman leads to moksha—liberation
from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. These ideas profoundly influenced later Indian
philosophical traditions.

Key Upanishadic Concepts and Their Philosophical Legacy

1. Brahman and Atman: The Core Metaphysical Insight

Central to the Upanishads is the profound relationship between Brahman and Atman, where
both are considered essentially one. The famous phrase “Tat Tvam Asi” ("Thou art That")
from the Chandogya Upanishad highlights this insight. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
explores dialogues about the self, afterlife, and human purpose, teaching that realizing the
identity of Atman and Brahman leads to liberation. This foundational idea shaped the
non-dualistic (Advaita) school of thought.

2. Advaita Vedanta: Non-Duality and the Unity of Existence

Systematized by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century, Advaita Vedanta is a direct

philosophical inheritor of the Upanishadic teachings. It asserts that Brahman alone is real,
and the world of multiplicity is an illusion (maya), caused by ignorance (avidya). Liberation
is attained when the individual recognizes that Atman is identical to Brahman, a view
supported by the Mandukya Upanishad. This non-dualism became the central tenet of
Advaita Vedanta’s metaphysics.

3. Sankhya: Dualism Between Consciousness and Matter

Contrary to Advaita’s non-dualism, the Sankhya system presents a dualistic worldview,

distinguishing between Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). While the
Upanishads emphasized unity, Sankhya argued that liberation comes from recognizing the
separateness of Purusha from the material world. The Katha Upanishad explores this
dualism, focusing on the distinction between the eternal self and transient existence,
influencing Sankhya’s dualistic philosophy.

4. Yoga: The Path to Self-Realization

Building on the Sankhya framework and Upanishadic ideas, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
propose a disciplined method for realizing the separation of Purusha from Prakriti.
Meditation and self-control are emphasized as the primary means to calm mental fluctuations
and achieve self-realization. The Katha Upanishad likens the body to a chariot, the mind to
reins, and the self as the rider—an allegory central to Yogic practice. The Mundaka
Upanishad also highlights meditation as a key to realizing Brahman, laying the foundation
for the Ashtanga Yoga system.

5. Nyaya and Vaisheshika: Epistemology and Metaphysics

While primarily concerned with logic and epistemology, Nyaya and Vaisheshika engage
deeply with Upanishadic thought. Nyaya emphasizes valid means of knowledge (pramanas)
such as perception and inference, advocating that knowledge leads to liberation, aligning with
Upanishadic teachings. Vaisheshika focuses on classifying substances, qualities, and actions,
while attempting to understand reality in a material sense. Both schools maintain that
liberation arises from knowledge, building on the epistemological concerns of the
Upanishads.

6. Buddhism: A Critique and Continuation of Upanishadic Thought

Buddhism emerged as both a critique and continuation of Upanishadic philosophy. The

Buddha rejected the Upanishadic notion of an eternal, unchanging Atman, instead teaching
anatman (no-self). However, many themes such as impermanence, suffering, and liberation
remain shared. The Katha Upanishad discusses death and impermanence, resonating with
Buddhist concepts of dukkha and anicca. Although they diverge metaphysically, both aim at
liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

Relevance and perspective in the Modern World

The Vedas and Upanishads are at the center of ancient Indian intellectual and spiritual culture
that is still applicable and relevant to life now. The Vedas, consisting of hymns, mantras,
incantations and ritual directions, importantly outline early Indian thought in a metaphoric
and spiritual web in which human beings, nature, and divine things interconnect. Vedic
literature instructs humanity on the value of charity, righteousness, and gaining insight and
understanding of the forces of nature for a more balanced and disciplined life.
From a modern point of view, the Vedas and Upanishads do not date our time. The universal
language of the Vedas and Upanishads supports holistic development science, values and
spirituality, advancing sustainable development, mental well-being, and sense of oneness in a
diverse world. The Vedas are more impactful than just being religious structures; they offer
shapes and insights that guide attitudes towards a scientific and philosophical worldview and
preventive health and ethical living and ultimately social harmony, to differ in what it entails.
The Upanishads do the same, but extend the Vedas to another layer of reflection,
self-realization, and ultimate truth.
The timeless instruction of Tat Tvam Asi ("You are That") shows humankind the way to look
past materialism and realize their fundamental oneness with the universal consciousness. Our
modern world, characterized by fast-paced change and a fragmented social fabric marked by
rising stress, environmental abuse, and moral confusion, humbly recognizes the Upanishads
as offering a timeless contribution to the ethics of mindfulness. Mindfulness attains its fullest
expression through ethical actions (whether individual, social, or spiritual) that are promoted
through spiritual practices (like meditation), through individual social responsibility
(morality) that generates compassion, and through ethics of attention (mind your own
attitudes and activities).
Ancient Civilizations
The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged during the second half of the third
millennium BCE. The forms of art found from various sites of the civilisation include
sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta figures, etc. The artists of that time surely had
fine artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation of human and animal
figures was highly realistic in nature, since the anatomical details included in them were
unique, and, in the case of terracotta art, the modelling of animal figures was done in an
extremely careful manner. The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation, along the
Indus river—the cities of Harappa in the north and Mohenjodaro in the south—showcase one
of earliest examples of civic planning.

It was one of the world’s earliest and largest urban civilizations, alongside Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and China. Although John Marshall officially announced its discovery in 1924,
the Harappan sites were encountered earlier. The first person to come across Harappa was
Charles Masson, who identified it as the ancient city of Sangala from Alexander’s era. Later,
Alexander Cunningham visited the ruins in 1853-1854, mistakenly believing it to be a
Buddhist monastery, and thought the seals found were of foreign origin. Systematic
excavations in the 1920s by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) revealed the ruins of
two significant cities - Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa unveiling a highly advanced civilization
with remarkable urban planning, advanced drainage systems, trade networks, and an
undeciphered script. The discovery of this civilization provided deep insight into ancient
Indian history, culture, and early human urban development, making it a key chapter in
understanding the origins of Indian civilization.
Three phases of Indus Valley Civilization are:
●​ The Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,
●​ The Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE
●​ The Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra
River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC. This phase is
characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Trade
networks had been established, and there is also evidence of the cultivation of crops. Peas,
sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase
leading up to the Mature Harappan Phase. By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had
entered a mature stage. The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban
centers, like Harappa and MohenjoDaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India. The signs of a
gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have started around
1800 BC, and by 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the
various elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. 3/7 Archaeological
data indicate the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000- 900 BC.

Town Planning and Structures

The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. Harappa and
Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly occupied by members
of the ruling class. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses,
which were inhabited by the common people. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of
the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. Granaries constituted an
important part of the Harappan cities. The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is
remarkable, because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt, mainly dried bricks were used.
The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive. In almost all citie,s every big or
small house had its own courtyard and bathroom. In Kalibanga,n many houses had their
wells. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and
sections within the town were also separated by walls.

Agriculture
The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the floodplains, produced sufficient foodgrains.
Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard were produced. Millets are
also found in sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare. The Indus people were the
earliest people to produce cotton. While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of
grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. 4/7 Representations on
seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate
shows oxen were also used for ploughing. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands,
where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at
the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh. Although the
Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a large scale. Evidence of the
horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a doubtful terracotta figurine
from Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was not horse-centred.

Economy
The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of
numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. The
Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. Metal money was not
used, and trade was carried out by a barter system. They practised navigation on the coast of
the Arabian Sea. They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently
facilitated trade with Central Asia. They also carried commerce with those in the land of th

Crafts
The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze. Copper
was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was possibly brought from
Afghanistan. Textile impressions have also been found on several objects. Huge brick
structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. This also attests the existence of a
class of masons. The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making.
Terracotta manufacture was also an important craft. The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver,
gold and precious stones. The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced
their own characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining. 5/7

Institutions
Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the scholars have not
been able to decipher the Indus script so far. As a result, there is difficulty in understanding
the nature of the state and institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization. No temples have been
found at any Harappan sites. Therefore, the possibility of priests ruling Harappa can be
eliminated. Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants. If we look for a centre of
power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate
answers. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that
everybody enjoyed equal status. Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a
number of rulers representing each of the urban centers.

Religion
In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant
is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the
earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians
worshipped the Nile goddess Isis. The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned
heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a
tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer. The
depicted god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva. Numerous symbols of the phallus and
female sex organs made of stone have been found. The people of the Indus region also
worshipped trees and Animals. The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which
may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull. Amulets
have also been found in large numbers.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.
6/7 One theory claims that the Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans, invaded and conquered the
IVC. In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that civilization
did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion. On the other hand, many scholars believe
natural factors are behind the decline of the IVC. The natural factors could be geological and
climatic. It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic disturbances
which causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses of rivers or dried them up. Another
natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall. There could be also dramatic shifts in
the river courses, which might have brought floods to the food producing areas.

Relevance and Perspective

The Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization, considered one of the first urban cultures in the
world, have so much significance for us in this day and age, not just as a topic of history, but
as an example of human accomplishments, innovation, and the juxtaposition of humans and
nature. The Indus Valley people, around 2500 BCE in what we now call India and Pakistan,
created carefully planned cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, demonstrating a high degree
of urban planning, drainage architecture, and fine craftsmanship. Overall, Indus Valley
achievements are a demonstration that even thousands of years ago, humans understood
order, community living, and sustainable development.
More specifically, this ancient civilization is relevant today because of its values of
community harmony, social organization, and sustainable living. The inhabitants of the Indus
Valley appeared to live in a society that articulated some version of equality. The cultures had
homes that were similar in size, while they also shared public spaces, such as sewage
systems, which shows the long-term vision in the community; unlike today’s world, Indus
cultures did not appear to have pronounced social divides. Given the environmental
degradation, social equity, and urban disorder faced by people today, we can learn from the
Indus Valley’s legacy by incorporating due diligence in planning to create cities, waste
management systems, and live in a balanced way with the natural world.
Moreover, the mystery of their script and undeciphered language is a reminder of the depth of
our cultural legacy that awaits our understanding. Their trading networks illustrate how
global connections are not new, they traded with distant lands and traded at a distance,
employing formative ideas on globalization. During a time when we are rethinking how we
make global connections while supporting our local identity, the Harappan example inspires
us to reflect upon our change that respects both traditional forms of and contemporary
identity.
Essentially, Harappa and the Indus Valley Civilisation are neither archaeological sites nor
ancient places. They are a reminder of human creativity and an invitation to learn from
history, to form a community, to be sustainable, and to be mindful while we build a better
future.

Overall Reflections
Studying the Indian knowledge tradition- from the Indus Valley Civilization, through the
Vedas, through the Upanishads, offers us a curious lens through which to learn about how
ancient cultures understood life, health, and human capacity. The Harappans had carefully
structured cities, and they ate nutritious foods, including multi-grain laddoos—the Harappans
clearly intended to care for their physical well-being and collective social well-being at least
4,000 years ago. The Harappans' commitment to wholesome and balanced foods reminds us
that the types of foods we eat are not only impactful for our bodies, they impact our minds
and the community that follows them as well.
The Vedas and Upanishads take this idea further by guiding us on an inward journey. They
initiate us on a path of self-reflection and mindfulness while developing upon the deeper
meaning behind our engagement with physical success. Do concepts, such as Tat Tvam Asi,
shape the way in which we see ourselves as expansively interconnected with the universe? If
so, how can we sense compassion, unity and ethical agency with others? In looking at
practices such as meditation, self-discipline, and ethical duties, we have the unmistakable
demonstration of a priori importance of mental clarity, emotional regulation and social
agency still at work in today's super fast-paced world.
Joining these threads- dietary wisdom from ancient civilizations, epistemic origins of early
human societies, and Vedic philosophy together, we see a clear picture: Human well-being is
holistic. It is not merely survival or consumption; but rather, conscious living, caring for our
community, and tending to our body, mind, and soul. Psychologically, it teaches resilience,
self-awareness, and an attachment to the universe. These seem obvious lessons, but in a
modern age where stress, outdated dietary habits, and global disconnection is prevalent, the
human lessons of the past are still current teachings about balanced lives, ethical decisions,
and individual and global growth.
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