Literature Review – Theme 1
Theme 1: Education and Gender – National and Global Perspectives
Over the past few decades, considerable global efforts have been made to improve gender
parity in education, driven by international frameworks such as the Education for All (EFA)
initiative, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). These efforts have resulted in significant improvements in female school
enrollment worldwide. However, a closer examination reveals that gender parity in access
has not necessarily translated into gender equity in educational outcomes and
empowerment.
Chisamya et al. (2012) critically evaluate this disconnect through a comparative study of
Bangladesh and Malawi. Although both countries have achieved near-parity in primary
school enrollment, their research highlights that girls continue to face systemic barriers
within schools, such as gender-based violence, discriminatory teacher attitudes, and limited
opportunities for leadership and expression. These findings emphasize that numerical
equality in access is not sufficient to challenge the patriarchal norms that shape the
everyday educational experiences of girls, especially in marginalized settings.
Jerry A. Jacobs (1996) furthers this argument by examining gender inequality in higher
education. He identifies a three-fold distinction—access, experience, and outcomes—to
understand how women may attain parity in enrollment yet continue to experience
disadvantages in academic engagement and labor market returns. Even when women
access higher education, the gendered segmentation of academic disciplines and structural
labor inequalities limit their social and economic mobility, especially in comparison to men.
This critique resonates strongly in the Indian context, where women's education often does
not guarantee proportional access to employment or autonomy.
UNESCO (n.d.) emphasizes that achieving gender equality in education means more than
ensuring equal numbers of girls and boys in school. It also requires addressing gender
stereotypes, improving learning outcomes, and transforming educational institutions into
inclusive and equitable spaces. Similarly, UNICEF (n.d.) advocates for a rights-based
approach to girls' education, calling for the removal of cultural, economic, and institutional
barriers that hinder girls’ progress—particularly in regions where early marriage,
household responsibilities, and school safety issues are prevalent.
Nowak (2021) presents a contemporary perspective on gender inequality, noting that
despite ongoing reforms, deep-rooted gender biases in curriculum, teacher expectations,
and assessment systems continue to hinder female academic achievement and
participation. These institutional norms often reinforce existing societal hierarchies and
limit the transformative potential of education for girls and women.
In the Indian scenario, the problem of educational gender disparity remains particularly
pronounced. According to a 2024 report by India Today, girls in rural and conservative
regions still face challenges such as lack of nearby schools, societal expectations around
marriage, and safety concerns while commuting. Although enrollment rates for girls have
improved, completion rates, learning quality, and post-education outcomes remain uneven
—especially for married women who often encounter additional socio-cultural restrictions.
Together, these studies and reports underscore that while the global discourse has shifted
towards improving girls' access to education, gender equity remains an unfinished agenda.
The literature consistently highlights that structural, cultural, and institutional factors play
a decisive role in shaping the educational journeys of women and girls. For contexts like
India, especially in states such as Uttar Pradesh, it becomes crucial to go beyond statistics of
enrollment and investigate the quality, continuity, and impact of education on women’s
lives—particularly after marriage.
References
Chisamya, G., DeJaeghere, J., Kendall, N., & Khan, M. A. (2012). Gender and education for all:
Progress and problems in achieving gender equity. International Journal of Educational
Development, 32(6), 743–755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.10.004
Jacobs, J. A. (1996). Gender inequality and higher education. Annual Review of Sociology, 22,
153–185. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.153
UNESCO. (n.d.). Gender equality in education. Retrieved from
https://www.unesco.org/en/gender-equality/education
Nowak, J. K. (2021). Gender inequality in education. In Human, Technologies and Quality of
Education 2021 (pp. 275–287).
https://www.apgads.lu.lv/fileadmin/user_upload/lu_portal/apgads/PDF/HTQE-2021/
HTQE-2021_275-287_Nowak.pdf
UNICEF. (n.d.). Girls’ education. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-
education
India Today. (2024, August 14). Understanding the gender disparities in Indian education.
Retrieved from
https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/understanding-the-
gender-disparities-in-indian-education-2579174-2024-08-14
