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International Refugee Law
 The Library of Essays in International Law
Series Editor: Robert McCorquodale

Titles in the Series:

International Law of Human Rights Sources of International Law

Michael K. Addo Martti Koskenniemi

International Law and Indigenous Peoples International Refugee Law

S. James Anaya Helene Lambert

International Law and Islamic Law Space Law

Mashood A. Baderin Francis Lyall and Paul B. Larsen

The International Criminal Court International Dispute Settlement

Olympia Bekou and Robert Cryer Mary Ellen 0 'Connell

Non-State Actors and International Law International Crimes

Andrea Bianchi Nikos Passas

Democracy and International Law International Environmental Law

Richard Burchill Volumes land n
Paula M. Pevato
Law ofthe Sea
Hugo Caminos State Responsibility in International Law
Rene Provost
The Law of Treaties
Scott Davidson Jurisdiction in International Law
Michael Reisman
International Legal Personality
FleurJohns Title to Territory
Malcolm N. Shaw
International Economic Regulation
Jane Kelsey The Nature of International Law
Gerry Simpson
International Organizations
Jan Klabbers Collective Security Law
Nigel D. White
International Peacekeeping
Boris Kondoch
International Refugee Law

Edited by

Helene Lambert
University 0/ Westminster, UK
First published 2010 by Ashgate Publishing

Published 2016 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 ThirdAvenue, NewYork, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © He1ene Lambert 2010. For copyright of individual artic1es p1ease refer to the
Acknow1edgements.

All rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
inc1uding photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Wherever possible, these reprints are made from a copy ofthe original printing, but these can
themselves be of very variable quality. Whilst the publisher has made every effort to ensure the
quality ofthe reprint, some variability may inevitably remain.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

International refugee law. - (The library of essays in
internationallaw)
1. Refugees-Legal status, laws, etc. 2. Human rights.
I. Series 11. Lambert, Helene.
342'.083--dc22

Library ofCongress Control Number: 2009931629

ISBN 9780754628132 (hbk)

Contents

A cknowledgements VII
Series Preface IX
Introduction XI

PART I HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

3 Hannah Arendt (1999), 'We Refugees', in Mark M. Anderson (ed.), Hitler's

Exiles: personal stories of theflight{rom Nazi Germany to America, NY:
The New Press, pp. 253-62. 3
2 Paul Weis (1966), 'Territorial Asylum' , Indian Journal ofInternational Law, 6,
pp. 173-94. 13
3 Bonaventure Rutinwa (2002), 'The End of Asylum? The Changing Nature of
Refugee Policies in Africa', Refugee Survey Quarterly, 21, pp. 12-41. 35
4 James C. Hathaway (1990), 'A Reconsideration ofthe Underlying Premise of
Refugee Law', Harvard International Law Journal, 31, pp. 129-83. 65
5 Corinne Lewis (2005), 'UNHCR's Contribution to the Development of
International Refugee Law: Its Foundations and Evolution', International Journal
o{Re{ugee Law, 17, pp. 67-90. 121
6 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill (2008), 'The Politics ofRefugee Protection', Re{ugee
Survey Quarterly, 27, pp. 8-23. 145

PART 11 THE 1951 REFUGEE CONVENTION: KEY PROVISIONS AND

IMPLEMENTATION

7 Andrew E. Shacknove (1985), 'Who Is a Refugee?', Ethics, 95, pp. 274-84. 163
8 Walter Kälin (1986), 'Troubled Communication: Cross-Cultural
Misunderstandings in the Asylum-Hearing', International Migration Review, 20,
pp. 230-41. 175
9 Guy S. Goodwin-Gill (1986), 'Non-Refoulement and the New Asylum Seekers',
Virginia Journal o{International Law, 26, pp. 897-918. 187
10 Joan Fitzpatrick (1996), 'Revitalizing the 1951 Refugee Convention', Harvard
Human Rights Journal, 9, pp. 229-53. 209
vi International Refilgee Law

PART III REFUGEE LAW AND ITS RELATIONSHIPWITH INTERNATIONAL

HUMAN RIGHTS LAW, INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
AND INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW

11 Deborah E. Anker (2002), 'Refugee Law, Gender, and the Human Rights
Paradigm', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 15, pp. 133-54. 237
12 Jane McAdam (2004), 'Seeking Asylum under the Convention on the Rights
of the Child: A Case for Complementary Protection', International Journal o{
Children's Rights, 14, pp. 251-74. 259
13 Stephane Jaquemet (2001), 'The Cross-Fertilization ofInternational Humanitarian
Law and International Refugee Law', International Review 01 the Red Cross, 83,
pp. 651-73. 283

PART IV EU DIMENSION OF REFUGEE LAW

14 Eispeth Guild (2006), 'The Europeanisation ofEurope's Asylum Policy',

International Journal olRelugee Law, 18, pp. 630-5l. 309
15 GeoffGilbert (2004), 'Is Europe Living Up to Its Obligations to Refugees?',
European Journal 01 International Law, 15, pp. 963-87. 331
16 Rosemary Byrne, Gregor NoH and Jens Vedsted-Hansen (2004), 'Understanding
Refugee Law in an Enlarged European Union' , European Journal 01 International
Law,15,pp.355-79. 357
17 HelEme Lambert (2009), 'Transnational Judicial Dialogue, Harmonization and
the Common European Asylum System', International and Comparative Law
Quarterly, 58, pp. 519-43. 383

PART V CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES ON THE FUTURE

18 B.S. Chimni (200 I), 'Reforming the International Refugee Regime: A Dialogic
Model', Journal olRelugee Studies, 14, pp. 151-68. 411
19 Satvinder S. lugs (2004), 'Free Movement and the World Order', International
Journal 01 Relugee Law, 16, pp. 289-335. 429
20 Alice Edwards (2009), 'Human Security and the Rights of Refugees:
Transcending Territorial and Disciplinary Borders', Michigan Journal 01
International Law, 30, pp. 763-807. 477

Name Index 523

Acknowledgements

The editor and publishers wish to thank the following for perrnission to use copyright
material.

Brill for the essay: Jane McAdam (2004), 'Seeking Asylum under the Convention on
the Rights of the Child: A Case for Complementary Protection', International Journal o{
Childrens Rights, 14, pp. 251-74.

Cambridge University Press for the essays: Helene Lambert (2009), 'Transnational Judicial
Dialogue, Harrnonization and the Common European Asylum System', International
and Comparative Law Quarterly, 58, pp. 519--43. Copyright © 2009 British Institute of
International and Comparative Law; Stephane Jaquemet (2001), 'The Cross-Fertilization of
International Humanitarian Law and International Refugee Law', International Review of the
Red Cross, 83, pp. 651-73. Copyright © 200 I International Committee ofthe Red Cross.

Harvard Human Rights Journal for the essays: Joan Fitzpatrick (1996), 'Revitalizing the 1951
Refugee Convention', Harvard Human Rights Journal, 9, pp. 229-53; Deborah E. Anker
(2002), 'Refugee Law, Gender, and the Human Rights Paradigm', Harvard Human Rights
Journal, 15, pp. 133-54.

Harvard Law School of Journals forthe essay: James C. Hathaway (1990), 'A Reconsideration
of the Underlying Premise of Refugee Law', Harvard International Law Journal, 31, pp.
129-83.

Indian Society ofInternational Law for the essay: Paul Weis (1966), 'Territorial Asylum' ,
Indian Journal o{International Law, 6, pp. 173-94.

Michigan Journal of International Law for the essay: Alice Edwards (2009), 'Human Security
and the Rights of Refugees: Transcending Territorial and Disciplinary Borders', Michigan
Journal of International Law, 30, pp. 763-807.

Oxford University Press for the essays: Bonaventure Rutinwa (2002), 'The End of Asylum?
The Changing Nature ofRefugee Policies in Africa' ,Re{ugee Survey Quarterly, 21, pp. 12--41.
Copyright © 2002 Oxford University Press; Corinne Lewis (2005), 'UNHCR's Contribution to
the Development ofInternational Refugee Law: Its Foundations and Evolution', International
Journal o{ Refugee Law, 17, pp. 67-90. Copyright © 2005 Oxford University Press; Guy
S. Goodwin-Gill (2008), 'The Politics of Refugee Protection', Refugee Survey Quarterly,
27, pp. 8-23. Copyright © 2008 Oxford University Press; Elspeth Guild (2006), 'The
Europeanisation of Europe's Asylum Policy', International Journal of Re{ugee Law, 18, pp.
630-5l. Copyright © 2006 Oxford University Press; GeoffGilbert (2004), 'Is Europe Living
Up to Its Obligations to Refugees?', European Journal ofInternational Law, 15, pp. 963-87.
Copyright © 2004 Oxford University Press; Rosemary Byrne, Gregor NoH and Jens Vedsted-
viii International Refilgee Law

Hansen (2004), 'Understanding Refugee Law in an Enlarged European Union', European

Journalof International Law, 15, pp. 355-79. Copyright © 2004 Oxford University Press; 8.S.
Chimni (2001), 'Reforming the International Refugee Regime: A Dialogic Model', Journal
of Refugee Studies, 14, pp. 151-68. Copyright © 2001 Oxford University Press; Satvinder S.
Juss (2004), 'Free Movement and the World Order', International Journal of Refugee Law,
16, pp. 289-335. Copyright © 2004 Oxford University Press.

Wiley-Blackwell for the essay: Walter Kälin (1986), 'Troubled Communication: Cross-
Cultural Misunderstandings in the Asylum-Hearing', International Migration Review, 20, pp.
230--41.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently
overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first
opportunity.
Series Preface

Open a newspaper, listen to the radio or watch television any day ofthe week and you will read
or hear of some matter concerning internationallaw. The range of matters include the extent to
which issues oftrade and human rights should be linked, concerns about refugees and labour
conditions, negotiations oftreaties and the settlement of disputes, and decisions by the United
Nations Security Council concerning actions to ensure compliance with international law.
International legal issues have impact on governments, corporations, organisations and people
around the world and the process of globalisation has increased this impact. In the global legal
environment, knowledge of international law is an indispensable tool for all scholars, legal
practitioners, decision-makers and citizens ofthe 21st century.
The Library o{ Essays in International Law is designed to provide the essential elements
for the development of this knowledge. Each volume contains essays of central importance
in the development of international law in a subject area. The proliferation of legal and other
special ist journals, the increase in international materials and the use of the internet has meant
that it is increasingly difficult for legal scholars to have access to all the relevant articles on
international law and many valuable older articles are now unable to be obtained readily.
These problems are addressed by this series, which makes available an extensive range of
materials in a manner that is of immeasurable value for both teaching and research at all
levels.
Each volume is written bya leading authority in the subject area who selects the articles and
provides an informative introduction, which analyses the context ofthe articles and comments
on their significance within the developments in that area. The volumes complement each
other to give a c1ear view of the burgeoning area of internationallaw. It is not an easy task
to select, order and place in context essays from the enormous quantity of academic legal
writing published in journals - in many languages - throughout the world. This task requires
professional scholarly judgment and difficult choices. The editors in this series have done an
excellent job, for which I thank and congratulate them. It has been a pleasure working with
them.

ROBERT McCORQUODALE
General Series Editor
School 0/ Law
Univers ity 0/ N ottingham
Introduction

[n the second edition of his book The Refugee in International Law ([ 996, p. xi), Goodwin-
Gill acknow[edged the 'extraordinary growth in refugee studies, literature and case law'
since the first edition of his book was published in 1983. [ndeed, international refugee law
scholarship already existed at the time ofthe League ofNations but it truly exploded in recent
years helped, no doubt, by the creation of several specialized journals in the field of refugee
law (for example, the International Journal of Refugee Law, the Journal of Refugee Studies,
and the Refugee Survey Quarterly). This volume offers a selection of the most influential
essays on chosen topics in international refugee law from a range of journals. Many more
excellent essays that could not be reproduced in full in this volume due to lack of space, as
weil as books and chapters in books, are discussed in this [ntroduction and included in the
Bibliography.
Central to any study of international refugee law are the key principles and concepts of
refugee protection, namely, asylum, non-refoulement, non-discrimination, family unity,
solutions, and international cooperation (including burden-sharing). Refugee protection also
entails the recognition of broad human rights to refugees. This volume is structured around
five themes. Part [, on historical perspectives, discusses the evolution of the term 'refugee'
and of the institution of asylum. [t also examines the key role of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in the development of international refugee law, the
evolution of the international protection regime, and two alternatives to asylum as durable
solutions to refugee flows: regional arrangements and burden-sharing. Part [[ discusses key
provisions ofthe 195 [ Refugee Convention (that is, the refugee definition and the principle of
non-refoulement) and issues of implementation at the domestic level (particularly concerning
credibility assessment). [t also looks at criticism of the Refugee Convention. Part [[[ deals
with complementary protection through human rights instruments and cross-fertilization with
international humanitarian law and international criminal law. Part [V examines re cent EU
developments in the establishment of a common European asylum system based on the full
and inclusive application ofthe Refugee Convention and other human rights law obligations.
[ have chosen the EU as a theme instead of other regional systems because of the predicted
impact that this new European asylum legislation will have on international refugee law and
human rights law. Finally, Part V looks at key challenges and perspectives on the future of
international refugee law.

Historical Perspectives

Refugees 'have existed as long as history' (Feiler, 2001, p. [30). For example, in 1492,
unconverted Jews were expelled from Spain and soon after from Portugal; similar expulsion
carried on during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Zolberg, [983, p. 3 [). Equally,
the French Huguenots left en masse during the forty-year war which ended with the Edict of
xii International Refilgee Law

Nantes in 1598. However, the international community only became aware ofits responsibility
to provide protection and find solutions for refugees during the time ofthe League ofNations
and the election of Fridtjof Nansen as the first High Commissioner for Russian refugees in
1921 (Goodwin-GiII, Chapter 6, p. 148). At the time, refugees were defined 'by categories'
(UNHCR, 1992, para. 3), such as Armenian refugees or Turkish refugees. It was only after
World War 11 that the question of international migration (including the stateless and the
refugee) became recognized as one requiring an international solution.
Hannah Arendt, in her essay 'We Refugees' (Chapter I), discusses her experience as a
'refugee' who, in 1941, emigrated to New York. First published in The Menorah journal in
1943, this much-cited essay illustrates a critical juncture in the discourse on 'refugees' and
'ordinary immigrants' and the changing meaning ofthe term 'refugee'. Until World War 11,
the term 'refugee' had been used mostly to describe a person driven to seek asylum because of
some criminal act committed or some radical political opinion held. Thus, Arendt writes: 'In
the first place, we don't like to be called "refugees." We ourselves call each other "newcomers"
or "immigrants" .... Before this war broke out ... We did our best to prove to other people
that we were just ordinary immigrants' (1999, 253). This idea that 'refugees' are not just
'ordinary immigrants' is critical in international refugee law, and is further explored in this
volume by Weis (Chapter 2), Shacknove (Chapter 7), Gilbert (Chapter 15), Juss (Chapter 19)
and Edwards (Chapter 20).
Directly related to the term 'refugee' is the concept of 'asylum' . Asylum is a peaceful and
humanitarian act; it has been defined as 'the protection which aState grants on its territory or
in some other place under the control of certain ofits organs, to a person who comes to seek it'
(Institute of International Law, 1950, p. 15, article I). Asylum is not included in the main text
of the 1951 Refugee Convention I or the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees 2 -
though it is mentioned in the Final Act ofthe United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries
on the Status ofRefugees and Stateless Persons (wh ich adopted the 1951 Refugee Convention)
as weil as in the Preamble to the 1951 Refugee Convention. 3 Notwithstanding, the UNHCR
has advocated a generous asylum policy within the spirit of the 1948 Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR) and the 1967 Declaration on Territorial Asylum (UNHCR 1992,
para. 25). Most states parties to the 1951 Refugee Convention have established procedures for
eligibility purposes and grant asylum to persons protected against refoulement.
Traditionally, asylum existed in favour of two groups of individuals: political offenders
and common criminals. But asylum as a matter of international law is relatively new (Krenz,
1966, p. 92). Article 14 ofthe UDHR proclaims:

Everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
This right may not be invoked in the case ofprosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes
or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles ofthe Uni ted Nations.

3
UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed in Geneva on 28 July 1951, 189
UNTS 150.
3 UN Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed in New York on 31 January 1967, 606
UNTS 267.
3 Asylum is also not mentioned in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
 International Refilgee Law xiii

Paul Weis's 1966 essay 'Territorial Asylum' (Chapter 2) takes a historical perspective on
this ancient institution. It traces the roots of asylum in the principles of state sovereignty
and territorial supremacy, and discusses its evolution in the light of the development of
extradition law during the nineteenth century, and the imposition of increased restrictions on
the freedom ofmovement ofpolitical refugees during the twentieth century. Under traditional
international law, asylum has always been a sovereign right of astate. Yet, this essay also
suggests that asylum may be regarded as a right ofthe individual. The latter view has since
been confirmed by Gil-Bazo to the extent that the right to be granted asylum as a subjective
right ofindividuals now exists under EU law (article 18 ofthe Charter ofFundamental Rights
of the European Union), as weil as in regional human rights treaties in America and Africa
(Gil-Bazo, 2008). Furthermore, it has been proposed that the notion of 'responsibility to
protect' should include the responsibility to grant asylum and to open borders to those f1eeing
the most serious international crimes (Barbour and Gorlick, 2008; see also Edwards, Chapter
20). Yet, this is not a view shared by everyone. Thus, Goodwin-Gill and McAdam maintain
that 'the individual still has no right to be granted asylum. The right itself is in the form of a
discretionary power ... a correlative right ofthe individual continues to be resisted' (2007, pp.
414-15). That said, states have certain legal obligations under refugee law, human rights law
and humanitarian law; in particular they have a duty of non-refoulement towards persons in
need ofprotection. Hence, developments in these areas of laws are responsible for the setting
of important boundaries to the discretion of states in granting (or not) asylum (see Part 111
below). An important question remains: does asylum constitute the best durable solution to
refugee f1ows, or should the focus be on root causes, regional solutions and burden-sharing?
The 1951 Refugee Convention does not deal with the causes of refugees' f1ows; in fact it
ignores the state of origin as the source of refugees. Rather, the 1951 Refugee Convention
concentrates on the persecution of individuals, the crossing of an international boundary and
the lack ofprotection in the state of origin. Hence, 'early warning' was created as a process
consisting in a wide range ofactivities spanning from 'data collection and analysis through to
preventive diplomacy' (Gilbert, 1997, p. 209). Other solutions include regional arrangements
and burden-sharing.
Regional solutions to the refugee problem have existed alongside the 1951 Refugee
Convention and 1967 Protocol since the 1969 OAU Convention on the Specific Aspects
of Refugee Problems in Africa was adopted. 4 This has since been followed by the 1984
Cartagena Declaration in Latin America. 5 In addition, the EU recently adopted its own laws
on refugee protection. 6 Bonaventure Rutinwa's essay 'The End of Asylum? The Changing

3 The Organisation of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee
Problems in Africa, adopted on 10 September 1969 in Addis Ababa, 100 I UNTS 45.
35 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, adopted on 22 November 1984, Annual Report of the lnter-
American Commission on Human Rights, OAS Doc. OEA/Ser.LNIIT.66/doc.lO, rev. 1, at pp. 190-93
(1984-85).
3 Council Directive 2005/85/EC of 1 December 2005 on minimum standards on procedures
in Member States for granting and withdrawing refugee status (Official Journal L 326, 13/J2/2005
pp. 0013-0034); Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on minimum standards for the
qualification and status of third-country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who
otherwise need international protection and the content ofthe protection granted (Offiäal Journal L 304,
30/09/2004 pp. 0012-0023); Council Regulation (EC) No. 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing
xiv International Refilgee Law

Nature of Refugee Policies in Africa' (Chapter 3) iIIustrates the shift in that continent from
asylum/resettlement to containment (see also Aleinikoff, 1992). At the time of its adoption,
the 1969 OAU Convention was a significant advance from the 1951 Refugee Convention
in two respects. First, in addition to incorporating the 1951/1967 refugee definition, it
expanded the definition to include victims of violence and generalized conflicts. 7 Second, it
acknowledged the security implications of refugee f10ws by adopting a more specific focus
on solutions (namely, voluntary repatriation - in contrast to the integration bias of the 1951
Refugee Convention) and by promoting a burden-sharing approach to refugee assistance and
protection (Feiler, 200 I, p. 133). That said, Rutinwa's essay is critical ofthe changes that have
occurred since the mid-1980s, as witnessed in the move from a traditional 'open door' policy
to a disengagement from commitment to asylum (see also Okoth-Obbo, 200 I). He calls for a
focus on the root causes ofrefugee f10ws in Africa, amongst other solutions.
James Hathaway's essay, 'A Reconsideration of the Underlying Premise of Refugee
Law' (Chapter 4), provides a valuable examination of the legislative history of the 1951
Refugee Convention, and of the role of states in the process of refugee determination at the
domestic level (see also Hathaway, 1984). It is critical of current refugee law for failing to
meet the needs of refugees and establishes a selective approach to burden-sharing (see also,
Garvey 1985). Looking back to the 1920s, Hathaway argues in Chapter 4 that the linkage
between refugee law and human rights was selective during the period 1938-50, 'in a way
that reinforced the economic and political hegemony of major Western states' (p. 78). He
suggests instead a 'regional and interest-driven protection in tandem with a general obligation
to share the burden of addressing refugee needs' (p. 70). More specifically, Hathaway calls for
a solution that would accommodate the self-interest of states of potential resettlement, first
refuge and countries of origin. In this and his two subsequent essays (Hathaway, 1991, p. 127,
and Hathaway and Neve, 1997, pp. 198-207; see also Hathaway, 1997), Hathaway outlines a
state-centric approach to refugee law. However, by suggesting a burden-sharing approach to
the duty of refugee protection that is based upon 'a sufficient level of financial and material
assistance' (Chapter 4, p. 118), and later on based on each state's resources and absorptive
capacity, Hathaway's approach was subject to forthright legal and moral criticism for being
overly state-focused (Chimni, 1998; Juss, 1998; Anker et al., 1998).

the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asyl um
application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national (Offiäal Journal L 050.
0610212003 pp. 0001-0010); Council Directive 2003/91EC of 27 January 2003 laying down minimum
standards far the reception of asylum seekers (Official Journal L 031. 0610212003 pp. 0018-0025);
Council Regulation (EC) No. 407/2002 of 28 February 2002 laying down certain rules to implement
Regulation (EC) No. 2725/2000 concerning the establishment of 'Eurodac' far the comparison of
fingerprints for the effective application ofthe Dublin Convention (Official Journal L 062, 0510312002
pp. 0001-0005); and Council Directive 2001/55/EC of 20 July 2001 on minimum standards far giving
temparary protection in the event of a mass influx of displaced persons and on measures promoting
a balance of efforts between Member States in receiving such persons and bearing the consequences
thereof (Offiäal Journal L 212, 0710812001 pp. 0012-0023).
7
Note that a similar expansion of the definition of a refugee occurred in Latin America with the
1984 Cartagena Declaration. In Europe, although the definition of a refugee was not expanded, the scope
of beneficiaries of international protection was: see Part IV.
 International Refilgee Law xv

The 1951 Refugee Convention was drafted at a time when the Cold War began, hence it was
labe lied as the 'child ofthe Cold War' (Bertrand, 1993, p. 498). As its full name indicates - the
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees - the treaty concerns the definition as to who is a
refugee (article I), and the rights and benefits which persons recognized as refugees are entitled
to, including the guarantee against refoulement (articles 3-34). In its early days, refugee status
was limited to persons who were escaping events that took place before 1951 (essentially in
Europe). A 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees extended the application ofthe
Refugee Convention to all refugees. To maximize accession, both instruments 'were carefully
framed to define minimum standards, without imposing obligations going beyond those that
States can be reasonably be expected to assume' (UNHCR, 2001, p. 29). The definition of a
refugee in article lA(2) ofthe Refugee Convention is that applied in most states in the world.
There are currently (May 2009) 141 states parties to both the 1951 Refugee Convention and the
1967 Protocol (144 states parties to the Convention alone and 144 states parties to the Protocol
alone). The underlying values of the Refugee Convention are stated by UNHCR as being:
humanitarian, human rights and people oriented, non-political and impartial, international
cooperation, and universal and general in character (UNHCR, 2001, pp. 2-3).
The 1951 Refugee Convention does not deal with issues of procedures (namely, how to
make adecision on eligibility to non-refoulement and/or refugee status) and these were never
directly a matter of internationallaw. Refugees and displaced persons from World War 11 were,
for the most part, already in their new states, and those who were still crossing borders were
generally welcomed by European states if only for propaganda reasons. The implementation
and interpretation of the 1951 Refugee Convention were therefore left, first and foremost,
with the contracting states, helped in their task by the Office ofthe UNHCR.
UNHCR was created as a subsidiary organ of the UN General Assembly in 1950. 8 It is
entrusted with the primary function of ensuring international protection for refugees. This is
explored in two essays in this volume. The first, by Corinne Lewis ('UNHCR's Contribution
to the Development of International Refugee Law', Chapter 5), discusses a key element of
the international protection function of UNHCR, namely, its contribution to the development
of international refugee law, in cooperation with states (article 35, Refugee Convention). In
the absence of an international body competent to monitor states' application of the Refugee
Convention and to interpret its provisions (with the exception of the general function of the
International Courtof Justice), UNHCR necessarilyplays acrucial role in this area. Meanwhile,
scholars have called for the establishment of an international judicial body independent from
states (Fitzpatrick, Chapter 10, p. 223; Chimni, Chapter 18, p. 417; Macmillan and Olsson,
2001; Hathaway, 2002b; Clark, 2004, p. 607; and North and Chia, 2008). However, it is
unlikely that states will agree to transfer their decision-making power to a central agency.
Lewis's examination of the development of international refugee law by UNHCR extends
to treaty law, soft-Iaw and customary international law. She finds that recently international
refugee law has mostly developed through customary international law and soft-Iaw. She
takes the principle of non-refoulement (Goodwin-GiII, Chapter 9) and the norm oftemporary
refuge (Perluss and Fitzpatrick Hartman, 1986, p. 624) as examples.
In contrast to this 'a-political' picture ofthe UNHCR by Lewis, the next essay, by Guy S.
Goodwin-Gill (Chapter 6), focuses on 'The Politics of Refugee Protection'. In so doing, it

8 UNGA Resolution 428 (v) of 14 December 1950 (UN Doc. A/1775 (1950)).
xvi International Refilgee Law

looks back to the 1920s and identifies competing interests - states' v. individuals' interests - in
the international protection regime. This regime indeed provides a good example of where
state compliance with standards of refugee protection may be motivated by self-interest at
certain points in time. That is not to say that other reasons do not also exist. Thus, the norm
of providing refuge for those f1eeing persecution is arguably constitutive of modem liberal
democracy (Gibney, 2004). At the same time, states have a strong interest in regulating
the cross-border f10w of refugees (Hathaway and Harvey, 200 I). Historically, the refugee
protection regime originated in the need to give some stability to post-war and post-colonial
spurts of state building. Cronin argues that:

[The] IPR [international protection regime] for refugees was not created to assist those displaced
from war. Rather states constructed the system to address post-war political developments that were
related to the construction ofnew states and new political orders. (2003, p. 156).

Leaders, nonetheless, shared a common sense of responsibility for the welfare of refugees
(Garvey, 1985). State interest took a new twist during the Cold War, as Western states used
the 1951 Refugee Convention as a political tool to embarrass the Soviet bloc and sweep
up defectors (Loescher, 1986, 1993). Goodwin-GiII's essay is important because it c1early
argues for a prioritization of protection over everything else, in particular solutions and
assistance. In doing so, it refocuses the debate about international protection onto its core
values. Thus, international protection must be humanitarian and nonpolitical in character,
but, more importantIy, it also ought to be about individuals' dignity, worth and rights, in other
words about entitlement to international protection. This issue is considered further by Alice
Edwards within the human security framework (Chapter 20).

The 1951 Refugee Convention: Key Provisions and Implementation

During the drafting ofthe Refugee Convention, more time was spent on article 1 than any other
ofthe 46 articles, mainly due to differences amongst states between a restrictive definition of
refugee (that would be limited to events that took place in Europe before 1951) and a more
general definition that could be applicable to future events. The restrictive view won, and
refugee status was limited to pre-1951 events which occurred in Europe (Goodwin-Gill and
McAdam, 2007, pp. 35-37). The drafters further restricted refugee status to violations of civil
and political rights because these were rights that were beginning to be accepted in 1950. 9
In spite of this, the 1951 Refugee Convention is the first international treaty providing for a
general definition ofrefugees. lO
Article 1A(2) provides that the term 'refugee' shall apply to:

any person who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of
his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself ofthe protection of
that country.

3On the exclusion clause, see Gallagher (2001).

310
Another definition of 'refugee' is contained in the Statute of the Office of the UNHCR (Weis,
1960, pp. 936-38).
 International Refilgee Law xvii

Andrew Shacknove, in a much-cited essay, 'Who Is a Refugee?' (Chapter 7), advocates a

conception of refugeehood (that is, the theoretical basis for the definition) going beyond
the legal definition of a refugee in article lA(2).11 The 1951 Refugee Convention definition
(which is applied in most states) is based on the existence of a bond between the citizen and
the state. In the case ofthe refugee, this bond has been broken, and persecution and alienage
are always the physical manifestations of this broken bond. These manifestations are the
necessary and sufficient conditions for determining refugeehood. The 1969 OAU Convention
is an exception: persecution is not the only criterion for refugeehood because of a different
historical context; external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously
disturbing public order in either part or the whole ofthe country of origin or nationality, are
also criteria for refugeehood. 12 Yet, Shacknove argues that both persecution and alienage are
sufficient but not necessary criteria for refugeehood because both persecution and alienage
are only the manifestation of a broader phenomenon: the absence of state protection of the
citizen's basic needs (in the case ofpersecution) and the physical access ofthe international
community to the unprotected person (in the case of alienage). In sum, the necessary conditions
for refugeehood, according to Shacknove, are: persons deprived of their basic needs, with
no recourse to horne government, and with access to international assistance (in or out of
the country of origin). Viewed in this way, the concept of a refugee acquires a new ethical
dimension. In fine, this essay introduces a useful way of thinking about 'who is a refugee?'
that would accommodate new categories of people such as internally displaced persons, yet
exclude others (for example, those whose basic rights are protected by the government or who
are not in a position to seek international assistance).
Today, many states accept that decisions on eligibility must respect basic procedural
standards, such as the right to a comprehensive review of asylum decisions (Legomsky, 2000;
Gorlick, 2003). But applicants often have a difficult task to convince decision-makers ofthe
veracity of their stories. Credibility determination (that is, the assessment of oral testimony)
rests at the core ofrefugee protection (NoII, 2005). Yet, international refugee law 'has failed
to develop a body of evidentiary principles that is tailored to the unique dimensions of the
testimony ofthose seeking asylum' (Byrne, 2007, p. 609). The credibility ofan asylum seeker
may be seriously damaged if it transpires that the asylum seeker has lied. Because an asylum
seeker has to show a well-founded fear, asylum procedures (at the early stage offirst instance
decision-making) generally provide a hearing during which the asylum seeker has to narrate

11 For a full discussion of this legal definition, see Goodwin-Gill and McAdam (2007, pp. 63-
134).
12 1969 Convention on the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa - Article 1:
1. Forthe purposes ofthis Convention, the term 'refugee' shall mean every person who, owing
to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a
particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or,
owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself ofthe protection ofthat country, or who, not having a
nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events is
unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.
2. The term 'refugee' shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression,
occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of
his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek
refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality.
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