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Sustainable Protein Sources
This page intentionally left blank
Sustainable Protein Sources

Edited by
Sudarshan R. Nadathur
Givaudan Flavors, Cincinnati, OH, United States

Janitha P. D. Wanasundara
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon SK, Canada

Laurie Scanlin
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States

AMSTERDAM G BOSTON G HEIDELBERG G LONDON G NEW YORK G OXFORD G PARIS

SAN DIEGO G SAN FRANCISCO G SINGAPORE G SYDNEY G TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright r 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
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ISBN: 978-0-12-802778-3

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Publisher: Nikki Levy

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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
 This book is dedicated to the memory of my father,
Dr. N.R. Ranganthan,
who instilled in me the desire to aim high and
to make a difference for the greater good B Nadathur

And to the memory of

Dr. Amanda Minnaar of the University of Pretoria,
who devoted her life to improving the nutrition of the people of Africa

And to those who work to sustain the earth B Nadathur,

Wanasundara, Scanlin
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of Contributors xv Part I

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Plant Derived Proteins
Introduction xxi
2. Soy Protein: Impacts, Production,
and Applications
1. Proteins in the Diet: Challenges in M. Thrane, P.V. Paulsen, M.W. Orcutt and
T.M. Krieger
Feeding the Global Population
2.1 Introduction 23
S.R. Nadathur, J.P.D Wanasundara and L. Scanlin
2.2 Production 23
1.1 Introduction 1 2.3 Soybean Protein Recovery: Protein
1.2 Proteins and Their Role in Food Isolation 24
and Diet 1 2.4 Types of Soy Proteins and Protein
1.2.1 Defining Proteins: Structure Products 26
Levels and Existing Classification 2.5 Sustainability 26
Systems 2 2.5.1 Two Life Cycle Inventory Models 27
1.2.2 Protein as a Macronutrient 2.5.2 Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Impact
in Food 4 Assessment 28
1.2.3 Protein as a Macromolecule 2.5.3 Other Perspectives on
in Food Systems 5 Sustainability of Soy 31
1.2.4 Overview of Plant-Derived Protein 2.6 Nutritive Value 33
and Alternate Protein Sources 7 2.6.1 Protein Nutrition 33
1.3 Sustainable Sources of Proteins 8 2.6.2 Muscle Health 34
1.3.1 Dietary Patterns Around 2.6.3 Weight Management and Satiety 35
the Globe 8 2.6.4 Cardiovascular Health 36
1.3.2 Health and Wellness Trends 9 2.6.5 Nutritional Relevance of
1.3.3 Product Trends 9 Other Seed Constituents 37
1.4 Reasons to Consume Plant and Alternate 2.6.6 Protein Allergies 38
Proteins 10 2.6.7 A Good Source of Protein
1.4.1 Living on the Earth in 2050 10 Across the Lifespan 39
1.4.2 Natural Resources for Agriculture: 2.7 Uses and Functionality 39
Land, Water, Nitrogen 12 2.8 Application and Current Products 40
1.4.3 Global Warming and Climate 2.9 Potential New Uses, Issues, and
Change 14 Challenges 40
1.4.4 Quality of Life 15 2.9.1 Generational Flavor
1.5 Meat Consumption: Why We Are Improvements 41
on the Current Path 15 2.9.2 Genetic Modified and Identity
1.6 Role of the Consumer for the Preserved 42
Greater Good 16 2.10 Concluding Remarks 42
References 16 References 43

vii
viii Contents

3. Rice Protein and Rice Protein Products 4.4 Protein Functionality 74

4.4.1 Solubility 74
H. Hoogenkamp, H. Kumagai 4.4.2 Foaming 74
and J.P.D. Wanasundara 4.4.3 Emulsification 74
3.1 Introduction 47 4.4.4 Satiety 74
3.2 Production of Rice 48 4.5 Applications in Food and Feed 74
3.2.1 Land Use 48 4.5.1 Gluten in Bread Application 74
3.2.2 Water Use 48 4.5.2 Animal Nutrition 75
3.2.3 Energy Use 49 4.5.3 Breakfast Cereals and Pasta 75
3.3 Processing of Rice and Rice Proteins 49 4.5.4 Protein-Enriched Foods 75
3.3.1 Proteins in Rice 51 4.5.5 Uses in Vegetable-Based Meat
3.3.2 Production of Rice Protein 53 Alternatives 75
3.4 Functional Properties and Applications 55 4.5.6 New Product and Technology for
3.5 Allergenicity, Off Tastes, and Wheat-Based Meat 76
Antinutritional Factors 55 4.6 Conclusion 76
3.5.1 Allergenicity 55 References 77
3.5.2 Flavor Compounds and
Off Tastes 57 5. Proteins From Sorghum and Millets
3.5.3 Antinutritional Factors 58
J.R.N. Taylor and J. Taylor
3.6 Potential New Uses and Emerging
Health Benefits 59 5.1 Introduction 79
3.6.1 Reduction of Cholesterol and 5.2 Sorghum and Millet Production:
Triacylglycerol Levels 59 Land, Water, and Energy Use 79
3.6.2 Suppression of Hyperglycemia 59 5.2.1 Production 79
3.6.3 Antioxidative Activity 59 5.2.2 Land-Use Efficiency 82
3.6.4 Reduction in Hypertension 60 5.2.3 Water Efficiency 82
3.6.5 Ileum-Contracting, Antiopioid, 5.2.4 Cultivation With Legumes 83
and Phagocytosis-Promoting 5.2.5 Sustainable Agriculture 83
Activities 60 5.2.6 Cost of Grains 83
3.7 Concluding Remarks 60 5.3 Protein Nutritive Quality 83
References 61 5.3.1 Protein Quality 84
5.3.2 Antinutrients 84
4. Proteins From Wheat: Sustainable 5.3.3 Protein Toxicity 86
Production and New Developments 5.3.4 Other Nutrients, Phytochemicals,
and Nutritional Quality Issues 86
in Nutrition-Based and Functional
5.4 Protein Types, Composition,
Applications and Structure 87
M. Flambeau, A. Redl and F. Respondek 5.4.1 Prolamin Proteins 87
5.4.2 Protein Isolation
4.1 Introduction 67 and Functionality 87
4.1.1 Agricultural Production 67 5.4.3 Potential Applications for Kafirin 92
4.1.2 Land Use 67 5.5 Sorghum and Millet Processing 92
4.1.3 Water Use 68 5.5.1 Effects of Cooking on the Proteins 92
4.1.4 Energy Use 68 5.5.2 Milling 93
4.1.5 Sustainability of Wheat 68 5.5.3 Malting 93
4.2 Proteins From Wheat 69 5.5.4 Lactic Acid Fermentation 94
4.2.1 Gluten Extraction From Wheat 70 5.5.5 Brewing and Bioethanol
4.2.2 Protein Hydrolysis 70 Production 95
4.3 Nutrition and Digestibility, Allergen, and 5.5.6 Compositing With Legumes 96
Antinutritive Aspects 71 5.6 Developments in Improving Sorghum
4.3.1 Amino Acid Composition 71 and Millet Protein Quality 97
4.3.2 Digestibility Data and Mechanism 72 5.6.1 Sorghum 97
4.3.3 Allergenicity and Intolerance 5.6.2 Millets 99
Mechanism 73 5.7 Conclusion 99
4.3.4 Antinutritive Factors 73 References 99
Contents ix

6. Protein From Oat: Structure, Processes, 7.4 Bioactive Properties of Hemp

Functionality, and Nutrition Seed Proteins and Peptides 128
7.4.1 Renal Disease Modulation 128
O.E. Mäkinen, N. Sozer, D. Ercili-Cura 7.4.2 Antioxidant 129
and K. Poutanen 7.4.3 Antihypertensive 129
6.1 Introduction 105 7.5 Concluding Remarks 131
6.2 Oat as a Protein Crop 105 References 132
6.2.1 Land Use 105
6.2.2 Water Use 106 8. Protein From Flaxseed
6.2.3 Energy Use 106 (Linum usitatissimum L.)
6.2.4 Health Aspects of Oats 106
6.3 Localization and Structure of Oat H.K. Marambe and J.P.D. Wanasundara
Proteins 107 8.1 Introduction 133
6.3.1 Protein in the Oat Grain 107 8.1.1 Plant and Seeds 133
6.3.2 Oat Protein Fractions 107 8.1.2 Chemical Composition 134
6.3.3 Nutritional Properties and 8.2 Sustainability of Flax:
Suitability for Celiac Patients 109 Land, Water, and Energy Use 134
6.4 Manufacture of Oat Protein Isolates 8.2.1 Land Use 134
and Concentrates 111 8.2.2 Water Use 135
6.4.1 Wet Methods 111 8.2.3 Energy Use 135
6.4.2 Dry Methods 111 8.3 Processing of Proteins and Types
6.5 Functionality and Potential Uses 112 of Products From Flaxseed 135
6.5.1 Functional Characteristics of Oat 8.4 Nutritive Value of Flaxseed Proteins 138
Protein 112 8.4.1 Amino Acids and Proteins 138
6.5.2 Applications of Oat Protein 114 8.4.2 Allergenicity of Flaxseed Proteins 139
6.6 Future Outlook 115 8.5 Uses and Functionality of Flaxseed
References 115 Protein 139
8.6 Application and Current Products 140
8.7 Potential New Uses, Issues, and
7. Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Challenges 141
Proteins: Composition, Structure, 8.8 Concluding Remarks 142
Enzymatic Modification, and References 142
Functional or Bioactive Properties
9. Pea: A Sustainable Vegetable
R.E. Aluko
Protein Crop
7.1 General Overview 121
M.C. Tulbek, R.S.H. Lam, Y.(C.) Wang,
7.1.1 Growing Regions and Yield 121
P. Asavajaru and A. Lam
7.1.2 Land Use 122
7.1.3 Water Use 122 9.1 Introduction 145
7.1.4 Energy Use and Cost 122 9.1.1 Cultivation 145
7.1.5 Plant and Seed 122 9.1.2 Cultivars 146
7.1.6 Seed Composition and Protein 9.2 Sustainability, Energy, and Water Use 146
Quality 123 9.3 Processing of Peas 147
7.2 Major Seed Proteins 123 9.4 Nutritive Value of Peas 150
7.2.1 Globulin 123 9.4.1 Major Components 150
7.2.2 Albumin 124 9.4.2 Minerals and Vitamins 152
7.2.3 Sulfur-Rich Proteins 124 9.4.3 Antinutritive Factors 152
7.2.4 Allergenicity 125 9.4.4 Bioavailability 153
7.3 Functional Properties of Hemp 9.4.5 Allergenicity 154
Seed Protein Products 125 9.4.6 Off-Tastes 154
7.3.1 Defatted Flour 125 9.5 Uses and Functionality 155
7.3.2 Protein Concentrates 126 9.5.1 Whole Peas 155
7.3.3 Protein Isolates 127 9.5.2 Split Peas 156
x Contents

9.5.3 Pea Flour 156 10.10 Health Aspects of Lupin 177

9.5.4 Pea Proteins 156 10.10.1 Cholesterol 178
9.5.5 Pea Starch 157 10.10.2 Bowel Function 178
9.5.6 Pea Fiber 158 10.10.3 Satiety and Glucose Blood
9.6 Applications and Current Products 159 Level 178
9.6.1 Baked Goods 159 10.10.4 Blood Pressure 179
9.6.2 Pasta and Noodle 159 10.10.5 Other Health Effects 179
9.6.3 Extruded Snacks 160 10.11 Conclusion 179
9.6.4 Meat and Meat Analogs 161 References 180
9.7 Health Benefits of Peas 161
9.8 Conclusion 161
11. Lentil: Revival of Poor Man’s Meat
References 162
A. Samaranayaka
10. Lupin: An Important Protein
11.1 Introduction 185
and Nutrient Source 11.2 Sustainability 185
M. van de Noort 11.2.1 Land Use 185
11.2.2 Water Use 186
10.1 Introduction 165
11.2.3 Energy Use 187
10.1.1 Cultivation of Lupinus
11.2.4 Diseases Affecting Lentil Plant 187
Species 165
11.3 Lentil Proteins: Characterization and
10.2 Sustainability 166
Processing Into Concentrates and
10.2.1 Land Use 166
Isolates 187
10.2.2 Water Use 166
11.3.1 Characterization 187
10.2.3 Energy Use 167
11.3.2 Processing Into Protein
10.3 Food (Protein) Dependence
Concentrates or Isolates 187
of the EU 168
11.4 Nutritional Value, Antinutrients, and
10.4 Processing of Lupin 168
Allergenicity 188
10.4.1 Flour 168
11.4.1 Nutritive Value 188
10.4.2 Concentrate 168
11.4.2 Phytochemicals 189
10.4.3 Isolates 169
11.4.3 Protein Quality 189
10.5 Nutritive Value 169
11.4.4 Antinutritional Factors
10.5.1 Protein 170
and Protein Digestibility 190
10.5.2 Fats 170
11.4.5 Allergenicity 191
10.5.3 Carbohydrates 170
11.5 Applications and Current Products 191
10.5.4 Minerals and Vitamins 171
11.6 Protein Functionality 192
10.5.5 Evaluation of the Protein Quality
11.7 Health Properties 192
and Digestibility of Lupin 171
11.7.1 Bioactive Peptides 192
10.6 Antinutritive Factors and
11.7.2 Chronic Diseases 193
Allergenicity 172
11.8 Off-Flavors Associated With Lentil Flour
10.6.1 Antinutritive Factors 172
and Lentil Protein Ingredients 193
10.6.2 Off-Tastes 174
11.9 Conclusion 193
10.6.3 Allergenicity 174
References 194
10.7 Uses and Functionality 174
10.7.1 Lupin Flour 174
10.7.2 Lupin Protein Concentrate 175 12. Underutilized Protein Resources
10.7.3 Lupin Protein Isolate 175 From African Legumes
10.8 Application/Current Products 175
M. Gulzar and A. Minnaar
10.8.1 Bakery Applications 175
10.8.2 Egg Replacement in Baked 12.1 Introduction 197
Goods 175 12.2 Marama Beans 197
10.8.3 Application of Lupin Protein 12.2.1 Introduction (Land, Water,
Concentrate in Batters 176 Sustainability) 197
10.9 Current Food Products 176 12.2.2 Composition of Marama
10.9.1 Nutritional Applications 176 Beans 199
Contents xi

12.2.3 Composition of Marama 13.6.2 Amino Acids and Protein 217

Proteins 199 13.6.3 Micronutrients 218
12.2.4 Protein Isolation 199 13.6.4 Taste Profiles and Allergenicity 219
12.2.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity, 13.7 Conclusions 219
and Antinutritive Factors 200 Acknowledgments 220
12.2.6 Current and Future Uses and References 220
Applications 201
12.2.7 Off-Tastes Associated With Marama 14. Quinoa as a Sustainable Protein
Beans 202 Source: Production, Nutrition,
12.2.8 Issues and Challenges 202
and Processing
12.3 Bambara Groundnut 202
12.3.1 Introduction (Land, Water, L. Scanlin and K.A. Lewis
Sustainability) 202
14.1 Introduction 223
12.3.2 Composition of Bambara
14.2 Production of Quinoa 224
Groundnut 203
14.2.1 Growing Regions and Yields 224
12.3.3 Composition of Bambara
14.2.2 Land Use 225
Proteins 203
14.2.3 Water Use 225
12.3.4 Protein Isolation 203
14.2.4 Energy Use and Cost 225
12.3.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity,
14.3 Morphology 225
and Antinutritive Factors 204
14.4 Nutritional Quality 226
12.3.6 Current and Future Uses and
14.4.1 Protein Content 226
Applications 204
14.4.2 Protein Quality 226
12.3.7 Off-Tastes Associated With
14.4.3 Protein Digestibility 228
Bambara Groundnut 205
14.4.4 Macro- and Micronutrients and
12.3.8 Issues and Challenges 205
Phytochemicals 229
12.4 Conclusion 206
14.4.5 Antinutritional Factors and
References 206
Allergenicity 230
14.5 Processing Methods 230
13. Peanut Products as a Protein Source: 14.5.1 Quinoa Seed From “Farm to
Fork” 230
Production, Nutrition, and
14.5.2 QPCs and Isolates 231
Environmental Impact 14.6 Quinoa Protein Functionality,
H.N. Sandefur, J.A. McCarty, E.C. Boles Off-Tastes, and Challenges 233
and M.D. Matlock 14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future
Research Needs 234
13.1 Introduction 209 References 235
13.2 Environmental Impact and
Sustainability 209
15. Amaranth Part 1—Sustainable Crop for
13.2.1 Climate Change Impacts 209
13.2.2 Water Use Impacts 211 the 21st Century: Food Properties and
13.2.3 Land Use Impacts 212 Nutraceuticals for Improving
13.3 Peanut Cultivation and Production 213 Human Health
13.3.1 Production Regions 213
D. Orona-Tamayo and O. Paredes-López
13.3.2 Cultivation Techniques 213
13.4 Peanut Processing 214 15.1 Introduction 239
13.4.1 Peanut Drying 214 15.2 Nutritional Components in Amaranth 240
13.4.2 Grading 214 15.3 Amaranth Proteins and Amino
13.4.3 Shelling 215 Acids for Human Nutrition 242
13.4.4 Product Processing 215 15.4 Bioactive Peptides Related to
13.5 Uses, Functionality, and Current Antihypertensive Functions 244
Products 215 15.5 Antioxidant Capacities of Amaranth
13.6 Nutritional Value 216 Peptides 247
13.6.1 Calories, Fats, Protein, 15.6 Potential Uses of Amaranth Proteins
Carbohydrates 216 in the Food Industry 248
xii Contents

15.7 Genetic Engineering of Amaranth 17.6 The Future of Chia Seeds: Molecular
Proteins 249 Engineering and Gene Editing 277
15.8 Concluding Remarks 251 17.7 Concluding Remarks 278
Acknowledgments 251 Acknowledgments 278
References 251 References 278

16. Amaranth Part 2—Sustainability,

Processing, and Applications
of Amaranth
Part II
Upcoming Sources of Proteins
D.K. Santra and R. Schoenlechner
16.1 Sustainability of Amaranth Production 257 18. Proteins From Canola/Rapeseed:
16.1.1 Origin and Distribution 257 Current Status
16.1.2 Production and Yield 257
J.P.D. Wanasundara, S. Tan, A.M. Alashi,
16.1.3 Land, Water, and Energy Uses 258
F. Pudel and C. Blanchard
16.1.4 Harvesting 259
16.1.5 Postharvest Processing 18.1 Introduction 285
(Cleaning and Storage) 259 18.2 Production of C/RS 285
16.1.6 Production Cost 260 18.2.1 Land Use 286
16.2 Processing of Amaranth 260 18.2.2 Water Use 286
16.2.1 Milling and Fractionation 260 18.2.3 Energy Use 286
16.2.2 Wet Milling for Production of 18.3 Proteins of C/RS 286
Starch-Rich, Fiber-Rich, or 18.3.1 Chemical Composition
Protein-Rich Fractions (Protein of the Seed 286
Concentrates and Isolates) 261 18.3.2 Protein Types of C/RS 288
16.3 Food Applications 262 18.4 Processes of Protein Product
References 263 Preparation 289
18.4.1 Significant Considerations 289
17. Chia—The New Golden Seed 18.4.2 Involving Aqueous
for the 21st Century: Nutraceutical Alkaline Conditions 290
Properties and Technological Uses 18.4.3 Processes Targeting Specific
Seed Protein Types/Fractions 291
D. Orona-Tamayo, M.E. Valverde
18.4.4 Combination of Chemical
and O. Paredes-López
and Physical Methods 292
17.1 Introduction 265 18.5 Nutritional Value 292
17.2 Sustainability of Chia 265 18.5.1 Amino Acid Composition 292
17.2.1 Production 265 18.5.2 Digestibility in Human
17.2.2 Land Use 266 and Animal Models and
17.2.3 Water Use 266 the Processing Effects 293
17.2.4 Energy Use 267 18.6 Antinutritional Factors of C/RS 294
17.3 Consumption of Chia 267 18.6.1 Glucosinolates 294
17.4 Nutritional Value 268 18.6.2 Phytates 295
17.4.1 Fiber 268 18.6.3 Phenolics 295
17.4.2 Lipids 268 18.6.4 Carbohydrates and Fiber 295
17.4.3 Phenolic Compounds 268 18.7 Allergenicity of C/RS Proteins 296
17.4.4 Protein Content and Amino 18.8 Functional Properties
Acids 269 of Protein Products 296
17.4.5 Polyphenols, Oil, and Peptides 18.8.1 Solubility 296
With Antioxidant Capacity 274 18.8.2 Emulsifying Properties 296
17.5 Chia Compounds Significant 18.8.3 Heat-Induced Gel
to the Food Industry 275 Formation Ability 297
17.5.1 Antioxidant Properties 276 18.8.4 Foaming Properties 297
17.5.2 Health Benefits 276 18.9 Applications and Current
17.5.3 Functional Benefits 276 Products 297
Contents xiii

18.9.1 Potential Food Applications as 20.5 Nutritional Value and Safety 333
Protein Supplements or Bulk 20.5.1 Nutritional Value 333
Proteins 297 20.5.2 Safety 335
18.10 Potential New Uses, Issues, 20.6 Properties and Applications
and Challenges 298 of Whole Algae Protein 335
18.10.1 New Uses 298 20.7 Consumer Acceptance 336
18.10.2 Issues and Challenges 299 20.8 Future Developments 337
18.11 Off-Tastes Associated With Using 20.9 Conclusion 338
Oilseed Proteins 299 References 338
18.12 Concluding Remarks 300
References 300 21. Edible Insects: A Neglected
and Promising Food Source
19. Mycoprotein: A Healthy New Protein A. Van Huis and F.V. Dunkel
With a Low Environmental Impact 21.1 Introduction 341
T. Finnigan, L. Needham and C. Abbott 21.2 Ethno-Entomology 342
21.3 Environment 343
19.1 Origins and Discovery of Mycoprotein 305 21.4 Farming Insects 344
19.2 Food Safety and the Regulatory 21.5 Nutrition 345
Framework 305 21.5.1 Protein Content and Amino
19.3 Cultivation and Processing of Acids 345
Mycoprotein 306 21.5.2 Fats and Fatty Acids 346
19.3.1 Fungal Fermentation 21.5.3 Chitin 346
Technology 306 21.5.4 Minerals 346
19.3.2 Mycoprotein and the Creation 21.5.5 Vitamins 346
of Meat-Like Texture 309 21.6 Consumer Attitudes 347
19.3.3 Process Variables That Impact 21.7 Food Safety 348
Quality 312 21.8 Processing and Marketing 349
19.3.4 Creation of Granular 21.9 Legislation 350
Comminute Texture 313 21.10 The Way Forward 351
19.3.5 Fat Mimetics 313 References 352
19.4 Nutritional Characteristics of
Mycoprotein 313
19.4.1 Nutritional Properties 313 Part III
19.4.2 Nutrition Research 316
19.5 Mycoprotein and Environmental Consumers and Sustainability
Impact 317
19.5.1 Environmental Impact 318 22. Meat Reduction and Plant-Based Food:
19.5.2 How Low Can We Go? 322 Replacement of Meat: Nutritional,
References 323 Health, and Social Aspects
M. Neacsu, D. McBey and A.M. Johnstone
20. Heterotrophic Microalgae: A Scalable 22.1 Transition Towards Plant-Based Protein
and Sustainable Protein Source Supplementations 359
22.2 Plant Protein Sources: Nutritional
B. Klamczynska and W.D. Mooney
Adequacy Aspects 360
20.1 Introduction 327 22.3 Plant-Based Protein Sources:
20.2 Chlorella Classification 327 Health and Wellbeing Aspects 363
20.3 Production 328 22.3.1 Systemic and Gut Health
20.4 Sustainability Profile 329 Impacts 363
20.4.1 Case Study: TerraVia Inc. 329 22.3.2 Satiety and Weight
20.4.2 A Low Environmental Impact 330 Management 364
20.4.3 Climate Change Adaptation and 22.4 Meat Replacement: Social Aspects 367
Resilience 333 22.4.1 The Complexity of Food Choice 367
xiv Contents

22.4.2 Changing the Diet of a Nation 368 24.5 Sociological Pathways for
22.4.3 Decreasing Meat Consumption 369 More Sustainable Protein Options 399
22.5 Overall Concluding Remarks 370 24.6 Conclusion 405
References 370 References 406

23. Flavors, Taste Preferences, and the

Consumer: Taste Modulation and 25. Feeding the Globe Nutritious
Influencing Change in Dietary Food in 2050: Obligations
Patterns for a Sustainable Earth and Ethical Choices
S.R. Nadathur, J.P.D. Wanasundara and L. Scanlin
S.R. Nadathur and M. Carolan
25.1 Closing Commentary 409
23.1 Consumers: Dietary and Purchase
25.2 Sustainable Protein Sources 409
Habits 377
25.2.1 Current State of Protein
23.2 Flavor and Taste 378
Production 409
23.2.1 Physiology of Taste 378
25.2.2 Change in Consumption
23.3 Why We Eat What We Eat: Taste
Patterns, Especially Meat
Preferences and Influences 379
and the Western Diet 411
23.3.1 Genetics and Food Choices 380
25.2.3 Are We Consuming
23.3.2 Our Upbringing and Cultural
Too Much Protein? 412
Influence on Food Choices 380
25.2.4 Diet Change, Consumers,
23.3.3 Affording a Healthy Diet 382
and Policies 412
23.3.4 Ice Cream, Broccoli, or Nuts? 382
25.2.5 Challenges With Diet Change 413
23.4 Sustainable Protein Sources
25.3 Environmentally Friendly
in Foods and their Challenges 383
Food Options 413
23.4.1 Off-Tastes Associated
25.3.1 Meat Alternates 413
With Plant Proteins 383
25.3.2 Newer Sources of Protein 414
23.4.2 Role of Flavors in Modulating
25.4 Relevance of Big Food Manufacturers 415
Off-Notes in Protein-Based
25.5 Production of More Food
Products 384
From the Same Land
23.4.3 Binding of Flavors by Proteins 384
(and Alternate Farming Methods) 415
23.5 Introduction of New Foods
25.5.1 Agriculture and Climate
and Changing Consumer Habits 385
Change: Crop Adaptation 416
23.6 Conclusions 386
25.5.2 Are GMO’s Necessary
Disclaimer 386
to Feed the World? 416
References 386
25.6 Reduction in Food Waste 417
25.7 Using Microbiomes to Our Advantage 417
24. Food Security and Policy 25.8 Sustainable Future Populations 418
M. Carolan 25.9 Moral Obligations and
Questions People Need to Debate 419
24.1 Introduction 391
Disclaimer 420
24.2 Livestock: Facts and Trends 392
References 420
24.3 Rethinking Food Security 395
24.4 Growing Homogeneity in
Global Food Supplies 398 Index 423
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