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 Snakes in
American Culture
This page intentionally left blank
 Snakes in
American Culture
A Hisstory
Jesse C. Donahue and
Conor Shaw-Draves

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina
 AlSo of IntereSt
by JeSSe
C. D onAhue AnD
erIk k. trump

American Zoos During the Depression:

A New Deal for Animals (2010)

lIbrAry of CongreSS C AtAloguIng-In-publICAtIon DAtA

names: Donahue, Jesse, author.
title: Snakes in American culture : a hisstory /
Jesse C. Donahue and Conor Shaw-Draves.
Description: Jefferson, nC : mcfarland & Company, Inc.,

♾
2019 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: lCCn 2018058333 | ISbn 9781476662657
(softcover : acid free paper)
Subjects: lCSh: Snakes—united States—history. |
human-animal relationships. | Animals and history.
Classification: lCC Ql666.o6 D5974 2019 | DDC 597.96—dc23
lC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018058333

brItISh lIbrAry CAtAloguIng DAtA Are AvAIlAble

ISBN (print) 978-1-4766-6265-7
ISBN (ebook) 978-1-4766-3453-1

© 2019 Jesse C. Donahue and Conor Shaw-Draves. All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

front cover images © 2019 iStock

printed in the united States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 611, Jefferson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
 Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge several people and institu-

tions for their help with this book. marget Dykens, the
archivist at the San Diego natural history museum, was
a wonderful help during the two trips that one of us made
to read through the laurence klauber collection. ellen
Alers from the Smithsonian Institution Archives helped
us with the William and lucille mann papers and gregory
raml facilitated our use of the roger Conant papers at
the American natural history museum in new york.
John Caltabiano, ellen palm, and matt lanier at the
Staten Island Zoo were of help; and we thank Doris Wes-
ley and kenn thomas for help with the Western histor-
ical manuscript Collection at the university of St. louis,
missouri; thomas Donahue for his translation of Afranio
do Amaral’s work; and thomas Zantow, our interlibrary
loan librarian, who cheerfully tracked down hard to find
sources that our library did not own. We also wish to
thank the anonymous peer reviewers secured by mcfar-
land who pointed out errors in our scientific writing
about snakes. Any biological mistakes about these amaz-
ing creatures are our own.

v
This page intentionally left blank
 table of Contents

Acknowledgments v
Preface: Dangerous Neighbors by Jesse C. Donahue 1

1. bitten: poor Americans and Snakes 13

2. Cures: the Strange and often painful treatment
for Snakebite before American Antivenin 43
3. Antivenin: bringing the real Cure to the united States 72
4. on Stage: traveling Acts, Circuses and Zoos 98
5. on Screen: Snakes in the movies, reality television
and Documentaries 122
6. In Jesus’ name: holiness and the handling of Serpents 153

Conclusion: Has Anything Changed? 174

Chapter Notes 191
Bibliography 208
Index 215

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 preface
Dangerous Neighbors
Jesse C. Donahue

As a child in the early 1970s, living on Storm king mountain near

Cornwall-on-hudson, new york, accidental visits with snakes were com-
mon. rock walls surrounding houses served as homes for snakes. these
animals and I sometimes literally ran into one another as I walked or rode
my bike by a wall and they darted out from the safety of their small caverns,
fearing the approach of a large animal. these were frightening encounters
for a small child, so I always ran home after them seeking comfort from
a parent. being good environmental stewards, my parents informed me
that I had nothing to fear from snakes and that they were more scared of
me than I was of them. but I was not so sure. there were times when the
black snakes, in particular, seemed aggressive, rearing up threateningly
and darting toward me. the snakes clearly perceived me much the same
way I saw them. from their perspective, I was a threatening giant near
their shelter and they wanted to defend themselves and seek safety. other
times, large black snakes scaled trees in our yard, making their way to a
sturdy limb to sun themselves.
the place we lived was aptly named because of lightning storms in
the summer that hit the mountain and sometimes hollowed out trees. We
had a couple of these lightning strikes on our property that split trees
down the middle, so previous home owners had placed metal rebars inside
one of the trees to preserve it, even though much of the center had been
gouged out by lightning. the rebars were placed in a step-like manner up
the center of the tree, and black snakes used them as a kind of staircase
to get to holes near branches and climb out onto limbs to sun themselves.
During one summer, we gathered together as a family on one of our lawns

1
2 Preface

Face of a western black rat snake found in New York State. They have a painful
bite and they are excellent tree climbers (courtesy commons.wikimedia.org;
https://snappygoat.com).

and watched in amazement as one large black snake suddenly appeared

out of a hole in the middle of the tree. he or she had climbed up the center
of one of the lightning- stuck trees and made its way out onto a long
branch. the snake was as long as the large and substantial branch on
which it was enjoying the afternoon sun—easily as tall as our six-foot-tall
father. these encounters left a lasting impression and turned me into one
of the millions of ophidiophobics around the world.
Some 20 years later, in the late 1980s on the opposite coast, my envi-
ronmentalist fiancé convinced me to take a backpacking trip to a breath-
taking group of mountains called the trinity Alps, in northern California.
As a child, he had spent many a lovely day there admiring the beauty of
the crystal-clear streams, lakes, and redwoods. After reading the map, I
expressed concern about hiking alongside “rattlesnake creek,” but he
assured me that the name of our destination did not signify the fact that
large numbers of this particular reptile lived there. he was wrong. next
to rattlesnake creek were large piles of rock made by gold prospectors
over a hundred years ago. We were struck by the challenge that these ani-
mals must have posed to miners who sought their fortunes in this rugged
 Dangerous Neighbors (Jesse C. Donahue) 3

part of the world. like the new england walls, these rock piles had effec-
tively created snake condominiums. We saw the snakes sunning them-
selves on top of the rock mounds, trying to catch the sunlight filtering
through the redwood branches. this time, however, they were large,
almost emerald green, rattlesnakes. even in my state of sheer terror, I rec-
ognized that they were absolutely stunning. their vibrant color, size, and
inherent dangerousness gave them a kind of beauty that seemed almost
magical. on our four-day trip, we saw, and nearly stepped on, three of
them. the trip was supposed to last longer, but the sheer number of them
started to get worrisome, and we headed home early. As far as we knew,
we were prepared if a rattlesnake bit one of us. Although we were both
college educated, including one of us with a graduate degree, neither of
us came from a medical field and so we had not read the best and most
up-to-date literature on snakebites. Instead, like many Americans, we were
burdened with the advice of the past. According to hiking and recreational
wisdom, we were supposed to have a snakebite kit of some kind with us,
which we did. Inside the kit, we had a razor, a rubber tube for a ligature,
some antiseptic, and bandaids. If one of us got bitten, we understood that
we should tie a ligature around the bitten limb, slice open the bite area,
suck out the venom, and then head to the hospital. All of this was highly
unpleasant sounding to me. It sounded, in fact, worse than the bite itself,
and I suspected that the whole idea made little sense. I had seen a friend
try to pierce another person’s ears, and even that simple procedure had
not gone well. If I got bitten, I could imagine screaming in pain, tears,
perhaps a few curses, and then a struggle with my fiancé about who exactly
was going to make the cut on my arm. In short, we were typical Americans
in that we were the victims of poor medical advice from the past, coping
with one of the most interesting, and sometimes dangerous, animals
among us.
As readers shall see throughout this book, these encounters capture
several of the findings of this book that examines Americans’ complicated
relationship with snakes. first, and most obviously, I encountered several of
them near my home or during an outdoor recreational experience. there
was not just one memorable experience, but repeated ones. Second, whether
or not snakes are a problem depends upon one’s perspective. to someone
whose height is half the length of the snakes and who also climbed trees,
they were dangerous. to my white, east Coast parents who worked safely
inside buildings, snakes were an interesting and crucial part of nature. third,
the kinds of snakes one runs into depends upon where one lives. An obvious
point, but one, as we shall see, that was often lost on writers from the east
4 Preface

Coast in the 18th and 19th centuries. fourth, much of America still
remains rugged and remote, which leads to snake encounters, particularly
for the pioneers who work, live, or spend recreational time in these places.
the miners struggling in the California mountains in the past capture the
types of occupations that placed people into accidental contact with snakes
historically. fifth, the snakes entertained us when we watched the black
snake scale the tree, and although we did not use the animal for profit,
many other Americans have, as we shall see. but the snakes were also
opportunists, using the rebar in the tree, and the rocks on the miners’
mounds, to their benefit. Sixth, snakes are unmistakably fascinating. As
much as I feared the rattlesnakes in California, I couldn’t help but marvel
at their dangerous beauty. this fear and fascination is woven into the fiber
of our beings through systems of culture and faith. And finally, both types
of snake were life-threatening under the right circumstances. We consid-
ered their venom before we went into their environment, because getting
treated for a bite would be painful at best, and life threatening at worst,
even in the late 1980s. And the cure still recommended among lay people
at the time was itself a barbaric act. We would have had little choice, as
far as we knew, however, because snakes were all around us.
my coauthor, Conor, and I are not alone in writing about snakes. the
literature about snakes is voluminous, but overwhelmingly it is found in
fields outside of popular culture and the history of medicine. existing lit-
erature on snakes is largely found in the natural sciences. Its primary pur-
pose is to scientifically identify snakes and their habitats for amateur
collectors and amateur naturalists. We wish to make it abundantly clear,
however, that this is not one of those books. this is not a biological guide
to snakes in the united States. Another subgenre of the literature that
comes a little closer to the purpose of this book involves current collec-
tions of stories or field research experiences told either by amateurs or
professional herpetologists.1 there is also a single study about the strug-
gles over enforcing protection for snakes (and other reptiles) through the
Convention on the International trade of endangered Species.2 Another
subgenre are medical studies that focus broadly on the scientific nature
of snake venom, the demographics of snakebites, and sometimes some of
the treatment protocols that preceded antivenin. 3 the closest study to
this one is a more internationally focused one by Drake Stutesman, entitled
Snake, that examines some central aspects of the relationship between
humans and snakes throughout the world.4
unlike these books, our work examines snakes primarily in American
culture and history from the 1800s forward. It is at once a book that we
 Dangerous Neighbors (Jesse C. Donahue) 5

hope will appeal to people interested in snakes, popular culture, history

of medicine, and animal studies. like History of Consciousness scholar
Donna haraway, we are interested in how these two species—humans and
snakes—have met. they are, in her resonant words, “entangled” with us.5
Writing about dogs, she (and others) note that they are the “other” who
have included “monsters, creepy crawlies, women, servants and slaves,
and noncitizens.” these “others” have a “capacity to induce panic in the
centers of power.” they induce “hyperphalia” and “hyperphobias.”6 Snakes,
and particularly dangerous ones, are the ultimate other in the animal
world. to examine this, we analyze how people encountered snakes, how
people tried to save themselves (or not) from interactions that went badly
(bites), how snakes have been used in entertainment, and the role of snakes
in American religious movements. this book draws on archival papers
from the San Diego historical Society, the American natural history
museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and circus archives. We make
extensive use of newspaper archives to share stories from around the coun-
try to illustrate what people experienced in the states that had the most
snakes. We also draw from medical journals, textbooks, and first aid man-
uals from a variety of organizations whose members came into contact
with snakes (particularly rattlesnakes) in the united States. through an
analysis of those texts, we show that some people were perceived as dis-
posable just as the snakes were. In this case, snakes did not cause panic
at the center of power, instead, we show that powerful voices downplayed
their danger to make themselves seem wise. there was a great divide
between humans and snakes, but it was primarily between white, privi-
leged writers from the east and snakes. Writers from the cities on the east
Coast either intentionally or unintentionally treated rural people, poor
people, children, and snakes as though they were either nonexistent or
disposable. We show that both species (human, and reptiles in the form
of snakes), however, have been opportunists and both have suffered dearly
for it, although some humans have clearly benefited the most. through
the use of these documents, we show that snakes have taken advantage of
our food, our shelter, and our water for their survival. humans, in turn,
have used snakes for economic gain in all kinds of ways, including enter-
tainment. unlike other animals who also benefited the human species,
however, snakes have fought back and inflicted significant damage on
humans in the united States and elsewhere.
Chapter 1 examines how Americans came into contact with snakes
in the 1800s forward, primarily by focusing on the encounters that went
badly. It is true that some people have always owned snakes as pets in the
6 Preface

united States and have had harmonious relationships with them. It is also
equally true that most snake encounters are nonviolent, and that both
sides leave one another alone and live together in harmony. newspaper
stories in the mid to late 1800s often covered the fact that parts of America
were inundated with snakes. rural pennsylvania and new york sometimes
found their hillsides swarming with black snakes or rattlesnakes. the
southwest was famous for its large numbers of particularly venomous rat-
tlesnakes, and the southeast and south had all of these snakes, plus a
healthy amount of cottonmouths as well. We are two species living among
one another constantly, and many times we can coexist.
however, many of the snake and human interactions did not end well.
And we begin by showing that self-appointed experts from the east Coast
perpetuated myths about human and rattlesnake interactions to make
themselves sound like reasonable, scientific, and fearless men. Contrary
to the facts, these authors made a variety of fictitious claims in newspapers
and other sources, including, for example, that rattlesnakes never bit peo-
ple. Americans who lived or worked outside of cities on farms, ranches,
railroads, the woods, and plantations, however, really struggled with ven-
omous snakes, particularly rattlesnakes, who bit them. poor people
encountered snakes during the day as they reached down to pick some-
thing up from the ground or to work the earth. And they met them at
night as both they and the snakes sought shelter in the slightly warmer
interiors of poorly constructed cabins or tents. these communities some-
times attracted more snakes than would have been present in the wild.
people brought grain for themselves and their livestock, the kernels
enticed rodents, and the snakes followed for the mice. later, in the early
1900s, when recreational hiking and outdoor wilderness sightseeing
became a trend, these kinds of Americans also learned about the sheer
number of snakes that surround us and they too attracted snakes to their
camps through food. 7 many of these interactions ended in bites that
caused dramatic pain and frequently death for humans and sometimes
the snakes as well. We review the many ways in which people were bitten
and the agonizing ways in which they died.
As a result of the frequent bites, many people needed medical treat-
ment for them, particularly from rattlesnakes and cottonmouth snakes.
In Chapter 2, we show that from the beginning, family healers, and later
doctors, in the united States had a variety of ways of approaching
snakebites, most of which were ineffective. early on, the treatment was
complicated by the fact that family medical providers, and later doctors,
were not herpetologists and sometimes struggled to know which snakes
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