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Capitalizing On New Needs And New Opportunities Government
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of
the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National
Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The
members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and
with regard for appropriate balance.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of
the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided
support for the project.
Limited copies are available from Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy, National
Research Council, 1055 Thomas Jefferson Street, N.W., Suite 2014, Washington, D.C. 20007;
202-334-2200.
Additional copies of this report are available from National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C. 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the
Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meet-
ing national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of
Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the respon-
sibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an
adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical
care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medi-
cine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are
chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
iii
Steering Committee for Government-Industry Partnerships for
the Development of New Technologies *
Burton J. McMurtry
General Partner
Technology Venture Investors
v
Project Staff*
Charles W. Wessner
Study Director
Contributors
vi
For the National Research Council (NRC), this project was overseen by the
Board on Science, Technology and Economic Policy (STEP), a standing board of
the NRC established by the National Academies of Sciences and Engineering and
the Institute of Medicine in 1991. The mandate of the STEP Board is to integrate
understanding of scientific, technological, and economic elements in the formu-
lation of national policies to promote the economic well-being of the United
States. A distinctive characteristic of STEP’s approach is its frequent interactions
with public and private-sector decision makers. STEP bridges the disciplines of
business management, engineering, economics, and the social sciences to bring
diverse expertise to bear on pressing public policy questions. The members of the
STEP Board* and the NRC staff are listed below:
vii
STEP Staff*
viii
National Research Council
Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy
Sponsors
Milliken Industries
Motorola
Nortel
ix
Contents
PREFACE 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 14
IV. PROCEEDINGS 71
Welcome 73
Dale Jorgenson, Harvard University
Introduction 76
Bill Spencer, SEMATECH
Opening Remarks 78
Congressman Sherwood Boehlert (R - NY)
xi
xii CONTENTS
Discussion 95
Luncheon Address:
“The Cornucopia of the Future” 120
Dan Goldin, NASA
Discussion 145
Discussion 157
NanoFrontiers 165
Alton Romig, Sandia National Laboratories
Discussion 171
Discussion 189
C. Bibliography 335
Preface
As we begin the twenty-first century, many believe that we are also witness-
ing the start of a new era—one where humankind will increasingly expand its
understanding of the building blocks of life, and one which will rely on ad-
vanced information technologies to process, analyze, and share the results of
such research. This era may well rest on what some call the new economy – that
is, an economy where higher sustained growth rates are fed by productivity
improvements made possible by the application of new knowledge and new
technologies. This state of affairs depends on continued public and private sector
investment in productivity-enhancing technologies. It also requires substantial
and expanded investment in basic research. Increased allocations of public re-
sources to research, though, are not sufficient; continued progress also depends
on government participation in the maintenance of a policy framework that sup-
ports the development of new technologies.
Government funding of research—especially university-based research—is
an essential part of this framework of support. Policies encouraging partnerships
and other cooperative arrangements among universities, industry, and the gov-
ernment have proved, in some cases, to be effective measures to foster the devel-
opment of new productivity-enhancing technologies.1 Such policies are often
related to specific government missions and procurement in sectors such as
1See National Research Council, The Small Business Innovation Research Program: An Assess-
ment of the Department of Defense Fast Track Initiative, Washington, D.C.: National Academy
Press, 2000; and National Research Council, The Advanced Technology Program: Assessing Out-
comes, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001.
1
2 CAPITALIZING ON NEW NEEDS AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES
health, transport, and defense. In other cases, limited support of promising tech-
nologies with widespread applications may be the most appropriate approach.
A TRADITION OF PARTNERSHIPS
The government’s role in supporting the development of new technologies
is not new. During the nineteenth century, the federal government had an enor-
mous impact on the structure and composition of the economy. The government
played an essential role in developing the U.S. railway network, and—through
the 1862 Morrill Act and support for the agricultural extension service—the
farm sector.2
This support continued into the twentieth century. In 1901, the federal gov-
ernment established the National Bureau of Standards to help industry. Later, the
federal government provided special backing for the development of (what we
now call) dual-use industries—such as aircraft frames and engines and radio—
seen as important to the nation’s security and commerce. The unprecedented
challenges of World War II generated huge increases in the level of government
procurement and support for high-technology industries.3 Today’s computing
industry has its origins in the government’s wartime support for a program that
resulted in the creation of one of the earliest electronic digital computers, the
ENIAC.4 Following that war, the federal government began to fund basic re-
search at universities on a significant scale, first through the Office of Naval
Research and later through the National Science Foundation.5
During the Cold War, the government continued to emphasize technological
superiority as a means of ensuring U.S. security. Government funds and cost-plus
contracts helped to support enabling technologies, such as semiconductors, new
materials, radar, jet engines, missiles, and computer hardware and software.6
2See Richard Bingham, Industrial Policy American Style: From Hamilton to HDTV, New York:
M.E. Sharpe, 1998 for a comprehensive review.
3David Mowery, “Collaborative R&D: how effective is it?” Issues in Science and Technology,
15(1), 1998, p. 37.
4Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1988,
chapters 1-3.
5The National Science Foundation was initially seen as the agency that would fund basic scientif-
ic research at universities after World War II. However, disagreements over the degree of Executive
Branch control over the NSF delayed passage of its authorizing legislation until 1950, even though
the concept for the agency was first put forth in 1945 in Vannevar Bush’s report, Science: The
Endless Frontier. The Office of Naval Research bridged the gap in basic research funding during
those years. For an account of the politics of the NSF’s creation, see G. Paschal Zachary, Endless
Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century, New York: The Free Press, 1997, pp.
231. See also Daniel Lee Kleinman, Politics on the Endless Frontier: Postwar Research Policy in
the United States, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995.
6For an excellent review of the role of government support in developing the computer industry
and the Internet, see National Research Council, Funding a Revolution: Government Support for
Computing Research, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999.
PREFACE 3
In the post-Cold War period, the evolution of the American economy con-
tinues to be marked by the interaction of government-funded research and activ-
ities pursued by innovative entrepreneurs. Government support in this period
has been essential to progress in areas such as microelectronics, robotics, bio-
technology, and the investigation of the human genome. It has also played a
critical role in the development of the Internet (whose forerunners were funded
by the Defense Department and the National Science Foundation [NSF]).7 To-
gether, these technologies underpin the new economy.
In all, both the federal and local governments in the United States have
participated actively in promoting domestic industry in an increasingly global
marketplace. Indeed, the U.S. has a remarkably wide range of public-private
partnerships in high technology sectors.8 In addition to the cases mentioned
above, there are public-private consortia of many types. These can be classified
in a number of ways: by economic objective of the partnership—that is, to lever-
age the social benefits associated with federal R&D activity and/or to enhance
the position of a national industry, and by other objectives, including the need to
deploy industrial R&D to meet military or other government missions.9
The U.S. economy continues to be distinguished by the extent to which
individual entrepreneurs and researchers take the lead in developing innovations
and starting new businesses. In doing so, they often harvest crops sown on fields
made fertile by the government’s long-term research investments.10
Recently, new Internet-based companies and biotechnology firms have been
the source of major innovations. These innovations, and the economic benefit
they provide, are based on information technologies that are more powerful and
less expensive to use than ever before. These technologies promise to remain a
source of substantial growth in the future.
The promise of better health, and the tangible benefits it represents, have
prompted federal support for biomedicine. Progress in biomedicine and drug
research, the development of diagnostic tools such as magnetic resonance imag-
ing, and the rapidly expanding understanding of the human genome give cre-
dence to this promise.
By the late part of the 1990s, this belief steadily gained momentum, resulting in
major yearly increases in federal funding for biomedical research. This tremendous
7National Research Council, Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research,
op. cit. See, particularly, chapter 7.
8See Chris Coburn and Dan Bergland, Partnerships. Columbus, OH: Battle Press, 1995.
9See Albert Link, “Public/Private Partnerships as a Tool to Support Industrial R&D: Experiences
in the United States.” Paper prepared for the working group on Innovation Policy, Paris, 1998, p. 20.
Partnerships can also be differentiated by the nature of public support. Some partnerships involve a
direct transfer of funds to an industry consortium. Others focus on shared use of infrastructure, such
as laboratory facilities.
10David B. Audretsch and Roy Thurik, Innovation, Industry, Evolution, and Employment, Cam-
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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