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VALENCES OF THE DIALECTIC

FREDRIC JAMESON
 First published by Verso 2009
Copyright © Fredric Jameson 2009
All rights reserved

The moral right of the author have been asserted

1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

Verso
UK: 6 Meard Street, London W1F 0EG
USA: 20 Jay Street, Suite 1010, Brooklyn, NY 11201
www.versobooks.com

Verso is the imprint of New Left Books

ISBN-13: 978-1-84467-877-7

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Typeset in Garamond by WestKey Ltd, Falmouth, Cornwall

Printed in the United States by Maple Vail
for Roberto Schwarz and Grecia de la Sobera
and
for Perry Anderson

O Wechsel der Zeiten! Du Hoffnung des Volkes!

 Contents

I. THE THREE NAMES OF THE DIALECTIC

1 The Three Names of The Dialectic 3

II. HEGEL WITHOUT AUFHEBUNG

2 Hegel and Reification 75

3 Hegel’s Contemporary Critics 102

III. COMMENTARIES

4 Marx’s Purloined Letter 127

5 Deleuze and Dualism 181
6 “History and Class Consciousness” as an Unfinished Project 201
7 Sartre’s Critique, Volume One: An Introduction 223
8 Sartre’s Critique, Volume Two: An Introduction 241

IV. ENTRIES

9 Commodification 257
10 Cultural Revolution 267

11 Persistencies of the Dialectic: Three Sites 279

12 Lenin as Political Thinker 291

13 Rousseau and Contradiction 303

14 Ideological Analysis: A Handbook 315

 V. POLITICS

15 Actually Existing Marxism 367

16 Utopia as Replication 410

17 Globalization as a Philosophical Issue 435

18 Globalization as Political Strategy 456

VI. THE VALENCES OF HISTORY

19 The Valences of History 475

Part I. Making Time Appear
Temporality and Figuration (475); Ricoeur’s Project (484);
Aristotle vs. Semiotics (490); The Phenomenology of Narrative
(495); Augustine vs. Aristotle (498); Ricoeur’s Three Mimeses (502);
Eudamonics (510); Closure of the Act (512); Modernism and the
Categories of Time (515); The Time of the Historians (532)
Part II. Making History Appear
Taking Sides (546); Peripeteia (552); Anagnorisis (565); Pathos (583)
Acknowledgments 613
Index 614
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 PART I

THE THREE NAMES

OF THE DIALECTIC
 Chapter 1

The Three Names of the Dialectic Three Names of the Dialectic

Innumerable introductions to the dialectic have been written, although the

tempo seems to be slowing down today. The sheer numbers of traditional
“presentations,” along with the historical changes that have taken place
since their flood tide, suggest that a new attempt might be useful, particu-
larly if it takes into consideration all the new thoughts about thinking that
have been pioneered since the critique of representation (Heidegger) and
since structuralism. In addition, the Hegel revival, which seems as vigorous
today as it will ever be, promises to ensure the inclusion of many indispens-
able “theological niceties” that a Marxism unschooled in Hegel left out or
even censored.
Traditional presentations have tended to stage the dialectic either as a
system on the one hand, or as a method on the other—a division that faintly
recalls the shift of emphasis from Hegel to Marx. Both alternatives have
been seriously discredited by contemporary, and even modern, thought: for
while the ideal of the philosophical system has been seriously called into
question since Nietzsche—how to go on claiming some unified system
when even the self or subject is structurally disunified or dispersed?—that of
method is no less disgraced by its obvious instrumentalization and by the
radical opposition it necessarily carries within itself between means and
ends. If the dialectic is nothing but a means, what can be its ends? If it is a
metaphysical system, what possible interest can it claim after the end of
metaphysics?
However, we will want to return to these two temptations, which hint at
some deeper properties of the dialectic itself; and we will want to add a few
more options, such as its relationship to temporality. For did not the dialec-
tic, even in its Hegelian form, set out to inscribe time and change in our
concepts themselves, and to show how some all-too-human longing for
timelessness obscured the inadequacy of our mental categories and filtered
out the glare of contradictions as such (a diagnosis Marx will recapitulate at
the level of the everyday with the various doctrines of ideology)? Indeed, the
omission of temporality in non-dialectical philosophy may well serve to
4 VALENCES OF THE DIALECTIC

identify what characterizes the latter as the most “natural” form of the
ideology of daily life, and as that common sense which it is the vocation of
the dialectic most often to rebuke (Aristotle and Kant then constituting the
great summas of common-sense thinking and subject-object empiricism).
This un-naturality of the dialectic, its provocative and perverse challenge
to common sense as such, might then itself be generalized into a kind of
definition, by way of its natural enemies. For are these not, alongside
ordinary, unphilosophical common sense, dogmatism on the one hand and
empiricism on the other? The belief in solid concepts, on the one hand,
and the certainty of real things, on the other—such are the sources of the
most inveterate anti-dialectical positions, and of the various idealisms as
well as the various positivisms, which Hegel will combat as so many forms of
Verstand, while the Marxian diagnosis of reification comes at them from a
different yet related direction (neither one presuming that Verstand, or
common sense, or even reification itself, can ever permanently be dissipated,
as though they were mere illusions of some kind).
Yet have we not here begun to replicate the commonplaces with which we
began, and to approximate something like a dialectical system with the sug-
gestion of a content identified with temporality and contradiction, while
the formal task of undermining non-dialectical attitudes and philosophies
slowly begins to turn into a newer version of dialectical method? In fact,
what has inevitably to be said is that this very opposition is itself dialectical:
to resolve it one way or another is the non-dialectical temptation; while the
deconstruction of each side of this alternative, rather than leading to the self-
destruction of the dialectic as such, ought to offer a perspective in which the
problem becomes its own solution.
Indeed, this is the perspective in which we might well attempt to turn our
own current problem—the presentation of the dialectic—into a solution in
its own right, namely, by dwelling on the various words with which we seek
ritualistically to identify and to analyze something whose existence we have
not yet even demonstrated. For the parts of speech offer so many camera
angles from which unsuspected functions and implications might be seized
and inspected; if they do not, indeed, bring with them their own metaphysi-
cal implications, in the shape of inevitable structural distortion.
So it is that to speak of the dialectic with the definite article cannot but
reinforce the more universalistic claims of this philosophy, as well as its
unity. At the same time this identification enhances its singularity, after the
fashion of a proper name; and indeed, it is rare for the dialectic as such to be
evoked in reference to any thinkers other than Hegel and Marx and people
seeking to develop lines of thought affiliated with them.
But an indefinite article changes all this; and it is mostly in this form that
dialectical moments are discovered and identified in other writers, such as
Kant or Deleuze, Wittgenstein or Bergson, that is to say in non- or even
 THREE NAMES OF THE DIALECTIC 5

anti-dialectical philosophies. Such identifications come before us as the laws

of specific or isolated zones, within universes of an altogether different char-
acter; and tend retroactively to confirm our impression that the definite
article (in the previous acceptation) seeks to convey some unified field
theory and to project well-nigh scientific regularities. The indefinite article,
however, generally seems to involve the discovery of multiple local patterns,
and indeed, as we shall see shortly, of binary oppositions.
Finally there is the adjective dialectical, which is generally used to clarify
moments of non-dialectical perplexity and to rebuke established thought
processes (such as an inveterate confidence in the law of non-contradiction).
To identify a phenomenon or a formulation as dialectical is implicitly or
explicitly to accuse the interlocutor of the lazy habits of common sense, and
to startle us into a distinction between at least two kinds of thinking.
These three versions of the word may be enough to organize a more sub-
stantial account of the thing itself.

I. The Dialectic

To speak of the dialectic, with a definite article or a capital letter, as you

prefer, is to subsume all the varieties of dialectical thinking under a single
philosophical system, and probably, in the process, to affirm that this
system is the truth, and ultimately the only viable philosophy—something
like that “untranscendable horizon of thought” Sartre claimed for Marxism
in our time.1 I sometimes think this too; but nothing is indépassable and for
the moment I merely want us to be aware of the problems such a position
entails.
It first of all presupposes the unassailability of philosophy as such, some-
thing already questionable since Nietzsche and certainly exceedingly dubious
since the emergence of what we call theory. If Hegel’s was the last great tra-
ditional philosophy, the last philosophical system (to use one of his favorite
words), then the omnipresence only yesterday of attacks on Hegel and of
various strident anti-Hegelianisms may have as much to do with a disbelief
in philosophy and in system as they did with the dialectic. (They also had
much to do with the question of idealism, to which I will return later on.)

1
Jean-Paul Sartre, Search for a Method, New York: Knopf, 1963, xxxiv. Hazel E. Barnes
translates “indépassable” as “which we cannot go beyond.” See “Question de méthode,”
in Critique de la raison dialectique, Paris: Gallimard, 1985, 14. Future references to
Critique de la raison dialectique are denoted CRD.
6 VALENCES OF THE DIALECTIC

1.

As for Marxism, there have clearly been any number of attempts to endow it
with a philosophy of its own, and those range from positivism to religion,
from pragmatism to structuralism, and passing through historicism and
existentialism on their way to a Marxian analytic philosophy and a Marxian
sociobiology. But the predominant form taken by Marxism as a philosophi-
cal system is surely that official philosophy so often in the West referred to as
orthodox Marxism or even vulgar Marxism or Stalinism, and which Annette
Michelson has aptly termed demotic Marxism; but whose official name, in
the old socialist countries, was in fact dialectical materialism.
It will be useful at this point to recall the three fundamental points on
which so-called Western Marxism2 distinguished itself from this ideological
relative which had come to power as an official state philosophy in one-third
of the world. First of all, the various Western Marxisms reaffirmed them-
selves as historical materialisms, that is to say, as worldviews which did not
posit the dialectical character of science or of nature. Then too, they were
willing to embrace psychoanalysis, something to which dialectical materialism
had been unremittingly hostile (and in a way, this inclusion of psychoanaly-
sis not only modified and enriched the conceptions of ideology developed
by the Western Marxism, but also underwrote their claim to place culture
and the superstructures on an equal plane of significance and determination
as the economic—even though from another perspective their inclination
was to denounce and abandon the base/superstructure distinction alto-
gether). Finally, the Western Marxisms voiced healthy doubts about the
productive role of Engels in the development of the Marxist tradition, even
though they acknowledged his achievements, particularly in his familiarity
with the scientific writings of the period as well as with military theory.
I want to emphasize what the first and third points imply about dialecti-
cal materialism as such. The notion of the dialectic, with a definite article—
of dialectics as a philosophical system, or indeed as the only philosophical
system—obviously commits you to the position that the dialectic is applica-
ble to everything and anything, and I use the ugly word apply advisedly. In
order to qualify as a real philosophy, in other words, this one will also have
to have a metaphysics of its own, that is to say, a philosophy of nature, some-
thing that necessarily includes an epistemology or in other words, a dialectical

2
Perry Anderson names and crystallizes this tendency in his influential Considerations
on Western Marxism, London: New Left Books, 1976. The Viconian agnosticism
observed by Western Marxism about nature and natural science is, however, vigorously
criticized, from a dialectical viewpoint, by John Bellamy Foster, in his pathbreaking
Marx’s Ecology: Materialism and Nature, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000,
which argues for a materialism in the lineage of Epicurus.
 THREE NAMES OF THE DIALECTIC 7

philosophy of science. And here I would like to distinguish between a dialec-

tics of scientific concepts of research and a dialectics of nature itself, the
former seeming to me a good deal more plausible than the latter. Western
Marxism, indeed, stakes out what may be called a Viconian position, in the
spirit of the “verum factum” of the Scienza Nuova; we can only understand
what we have made, and therefore we are only in a position to claim knowl-
edge of history but not of Nature itself, which is the doing of God.
Ironically, the appropriation of science and nature by dialectical material-
ism—which was of course pioneered by Engels—can ultimately be traced
back to Hegel himself, whose philosophy was never promoted by Soviet
state philosophy, despite Lenin’s enthusiasm for the Logic. Indeed, it can be
argued that the very conception of a dialectic of nature is an idealist one, an
argument that demands a moment’s reflection in its own right, particularly
owing to the critiques of Hegel and of idealism mounted in recent times by
Althusser and others. It probably will not do to remind ourselves of the
recurrently activist politics of so many idealisms from Plato on down; better
to take on the problem of idealism from two distinct perspectives, the first of
which is that of the philosophical problem of consciousness itself.
It is a problem which must be sharply distinguished from those of the so-
called centered self and of personal identity and individuality; as well as
from those of the psyche and its structure (the question of psychoanalysis);
or indeed from that of self-consciousness or reflexivity (issues relating to the
ideology of modernity as such); or finally from the various spiritualisms.
The seeming ineradicability of idealism then in this sense results from the
fact that human beings are incapable of imagining anything other than
this element of consciousness in which we are eternally submerged (even
in sleep); incapable therefore of theorizing this phenomenon in the light
of what it is not—by virtue of the law that identifies determination with
negation (Spinoza). Such agnosticism is not a defense of idealism as a phi-
losophy, but rather an acknowledgement of the limit under which it must
necessarily place all philosophy.
But what of that materialism in whose name the critique of idealism is
most often waged? This is our second perspective on the problem of ideal-
ism, and here the idealists celebrate their conceptual triumphs, making it
clear that the idealist position is not a substantive one in its own right, but
rather draws its real power and finds its true vocation reactively, as a critique
of materialism as such. For as thinkers from Berkeley on demonstrated, the
concept of matter as such is an incoherent one, what Deleuze would call a
“bad concept”: it follows that, however intolerable the idealist position in
philosophy may be, the materialist one is an untenable alternative. We
might add to this Berkeley’s interesting (well-nigh Deleuzian) observation
that materialism robs our existential life and our bodily sensations and per-
ceptions of their freshness and intensity by substituting for them just such a
8 VALENCES OF THE DIALECTIC

formless and non-immediate, sensorily unverifiable substratum as matter

itself.3
The easiest solution to the problem is clearly the one which identifies the
alternative between idealism and materialism as a binary opposition, and
which thereby encourages the conclusion that the urge to decide between
materialism and idealism is motivated by the “law of non-contradiction”
and can therefore itself be ruled undialectical. The fact is that the choice
between these alternatives is only imposed on thought which aspires to
become a system or a philosophy as such: and with this we turn to the third
feature of so-called Western Marxism to be elucidated, not only about
Hegel, but also about Marx himself. I want to argue that neither is to be
associated with the construction of a philosophy as such. In the case of
Marx, this is historically obvious enough: for it was not Marx but Engels
who invented Marxism and constructed this system in such a way that it
could seem to be a philosophy in its own right or at least to demand comple-
tion by this or that philosophy.

2.

The assertion seems a good deal more perverse when it is a question of a

thinker so philosophically voluminous as Hegel, and so obsessively system-
atic in the construction of his various complementary subfields (logic,
science, anthropology, law and politics, history, aesthetics, religion, the
history of philosophy itself, and so forth). But in Hegel’s case I will merely
claim that, after the Phenomenology, it is Hegel himself who turns his own
thought into a philosophy and a system; in other words, who, with the
later collaboration of his disciplines, produces something we may call
Hegelianism, in contrast to that rich practice of dialectical thinking we find
in the first great 1807 masterpiece. Such a distinction will help us under-
stand that virtually all the varied contemporary attacks on Hegel are in
reality so many indictments of Hegelianism as a philosophy, or, what
amounts to the same thing, as an ideology. Indeed, the suffix “ism” always
designates both, besides betraying the operations of what Lacan called the
“discourse of the university,”4 which is to say the irrepressible urge to iden-
tify all thoughts with a named source (as when we speak of the Hegelian
dialectic or, indeed of Marxism).
All of which is complicitous with the institutional self-perpetuation of
philosophy itself. It is no doubt always amusing to observe the compulsion
3
George Berkeley, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, in The
Works of George Berkeley, eds. A. A. Luce and T. E. Jessop, London: Thomas Nelson,
1949, 27–3,142, 72–74.
4
Jacques Lacan, Le séminaire, Livre XVII: L’envers de la psychanalyse, Paris: Seuil, 1991.
 THREE NAMES OF THE DIALECTIC 9

offered by professional philosophers from Hegel to Althusser or Deleuze to

waste their vital energies in the philosophical defense and apologia of philos-
ophy as such. No doubt—and the work of Pierre Bourdieu is there to
remind us of it—those of us in other institutional disciplines are driven in
much the same way to our own analogous institutional self-justifications;
but the emergence of Theory in the last years has seemed to offer a space
outside the institutions and outside the rehearsal of such compulsory ratio-
nalizations, and it is the claims of theory (if not its achieved realities) which
allow us to grasp the limits of philosophy as such, very much including
dialectical philosophy. I believe that theory is to be grasped as the perpetual
and impossible attempt to dereify the language of thought, and to preempt
all the systems and ideologies which inevitably result from the establishment
of this or that fixed terminology. Deconstruction is thus the very paradigm
of a theoretical process of undoing terminologies which, by virtue of
the elaboration of the terminology that very process requires, becomes a
philosophy and an ideology in its own turn and congeals into the very
type of system it sought to undermine. The persistence of the proper
name in theory, indeed—as when we identify various texts as Derridean,
Althusserian, or Habermassian—only serves to betray the hopelessness
of the nonetheless unavoidable aim of theoretical writing to escape the
reifications of philosophy as well as the commodifications of the intellectual
marketplace today.
Yet theory offers the vantage point from which the commodification of
the philosophical system becomes visible and inescapable. This “end of phi-
losophy” may be argued in another way as well, in terms of its aspiration to
closure and its exemplification of one of the currently fashionable pop-
scientific formulae, the one called Gödel’s Law, which is supposed to
exclude the possibility for any system to ground itself or to include its own
foundation within its own axiomatic. I will in fact argue (in the next section
of this book) that Hegel’s is not a closed or circular teleological system; and
that we are not to take Absolute Spirit as a historical moment, let alone any
“end of history,” just as we are not to take the ethical individual of civil
society and constitutional monarchy as the culmination of social develop-
ment for Hegel. Hegel is therefore not to be read as projecting a closed
system, even though Hegelianism may be: but we also need to refuse the old
ideological paradigm of closed versus open systems, a Cold War invention if
there ever was one, part and parcel of the equally spurious concept of
“totalitarianism.”
One may very well welcome the current slogans of anti-foundationalism
and anti-essentialism—and reread Marx himself as well as Hegel in the
light of the demands they make on us—without ignoring the obvious,
namely that these preeminently theoretical slogans and programs have
already themselves become thematized and reified—in other words, have
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