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 Page i

Twelfth Edition

Critical
Thinking
Brooke Noel Moore
Richard Parker
California State University, Chico

with help in Chapter 12

from Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers
 Page ii

CRITICAL THINKING, TWELFTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous
editions © 2015, 2012, and 2009. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to,
in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers
outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-1-259-69087-7
MHID 1-259-69087-3

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Moore, Brooke Noel, author. | Parker, Richard (Richard B.), author.
Title: Critical thinking / Brooke Noel Moore, Richard Parker, California

State University, Chico; with help in chapter 12 from Nina Rosenstand and

Anita Silvers.
Description: Twelfth Edition. | Dubuque, IA : McGraw-Hill Education, 2016.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016021518 | ISBN 9781259690877 (alk. paper) | ISBN

1259690873 (alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Critical thinking.

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 Page iii

Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Don’t Believe Everything You Think 1

Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 32
Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 64
Chapter 4 Credibility 93
Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 132
Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 173
Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 195
Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 220
Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 242
Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 284
Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 338
Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 390
 Page v

Contents

Preface xiv
Acknowledgments xx
About the Authors xxiv

Chapter 1 Don’t Believe Everything You Think 1

Beliefs and Claims 4
Objective Claims and Subjective Claims 4
Fact and Opinion 5
Relativism 6
Moral Subjectivism 6
Issues 6
Arguments 7
Cognitive Biases 14
Truth and Knowledge 20
What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 20
A Word About the Exercises 21
Recap 21
Additional Exercises 23

Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 32

Arguments: General Features 32
Conclusions Used as Premises 33
Unstated Premises and Conclusions 33
Two Kinds of Arguments 34
Deductive Arguments 34
Inductive Arguments 36
Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 37
Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 37
Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 38
Balance of Considerations 40 Page vi
Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE) 41
What Are Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 41
Pictures 42
If . . . then . . . Sentences 42
Lists of Facts 42
“A because B” 43
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 43
Techniques for Understanding Arguments 48
Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 49
Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 51
Evaluating Arguments 52
Recap 52
Additional Exercises 53

Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear

Writing 64
Vagueness 65
Ambiguity 67
Semantic Ambiguity 68
Grouping Ambiguity 68
Syntactic Ambiguity 68
Generality 70
Defining Terms 75
Purposes of Definitions 75
Kinds of Definitions 76
Tips on Definitions 77
Writing Argumentative Essays 79
Good Writing Practices 80
Essay Types to Avoid 81
 Persuasive Writing 82 Page vii
Writing in a Diverse Society 82
Recap 83
Additional Exercises 84

Chapter 4 Credibility 93
The Claim and Its Source 95
Assessing the Content of the Claim 96
Does the Claim Conflict with Our Personal Observations? 96
Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 99
The Credibility of Sources 102
Interested Parties 102
Physical and Other Characteristics 103
Expertise 105
Credibility and the News Media 109
Consolidation of Media Ownership 109
Government Management of the News 109
Bias Within the Media 111
Talk Radio 113
Advocacy Television 113
The Internet, Generally 114
Blogs 117
Advertising 118
Three Kinds of Ads 118
Recap 121
Additional Exercises 122

Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 132

Rhetorical Force 133
Rhetorical Devices I 134
Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 134
Weaselers 134 Page viii
Downplayers 135
Rhetorical Devices II 137
Stereotypes 137
Innuendo 138
Loaded Questions 139
Rhetorical Devices III 141
Ridicule/Sarcasm 141
Hyperbole 141
Rhetorical Devices IV 142
Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 142
Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 143
Proof Surrogates and Repetition 147
Proof Surrogates 147
Repetition 148
Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 150
The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 152
Recap 155
Additional Exercises 156

Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 173

Argumentum Ad Hominem 174
Poisoning the Well 175
Guilt by Association 175
Genetic Fallacy 175
Straw Man 176
False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 177
The Perfectionist Fallacy 178
The Line-Drawing Fallacy 178
Misplacing the Burden of Proof 179
Begging the Question (Assuming What You are Trying to Prove) 181
Appeal To Emotion 182
Argument from Outrage 182 Page ix
Scare Tactics 182
Appeal to Pity 184
 Other Appeals to Emotion 184
Irrelevant Conclusion 186
Recap 188
Exercises 188

Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 195

Generalizations 195
Generalizing from Too Few Cases (Hasty Generalization) 196
Generalizing from Exceptional Cases 198
Accident 199
Weak Analogy 200
Mistaken Appeal to Authority 202
Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 202
Mistaken Appeal to Common Practice 203
Bandwagon Fallacy 203
Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 205
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 205
Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 209
Slippery Slope 211
Untestable Explanation 212
Line-Drawing Again 212
Recap 213
Exercises 213

Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 220

Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent,
and Undistributed Middle 220
Affirming the Consequent 220
Denying the Antecedent 221
The Undistributed Middle 222
The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 224 Page x
The Fallacies of Composition and Division 225
Confusing Explanations with Excuses 227
Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 229
Consistency and Inconsistency 230
Miscalculating Probabilities 231
Incorrectly Combining the Probability of Independent Events 231
Gambler’s Fallacy 232
Overlooking Prior Probabilities 233
Faulty Inductive Conversion 233
Recap 235
Additional Exercises 236

Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 242

Categorical Claims 244
Venn Diagrams 245
Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 246
Translating Claims in Which the Word “Only” or the Phrase “The
Only” Occurs 246
Translating Claims About Times and Places 247
Translating Claims About Specific Individuals 249
Translating Claims that Use Mass Nouns 250
The Square of Opposition 252
Existential Assumption and the Square of Opposition 252
Inferences Across the Square 253
Three Categorical Relations 254
Conversion 254
Obversion 254
Contraposition 255
Categorical Syllogisms 262
The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 264
Existential Assumption in Categorical Syllogisms 267
Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 267 Page xi
Real-Life Syllogisms 268
The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 272
Recap 274
Additional Exercises 274

Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic

284
Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 285
Claim Variables 285
Truth Tables 285
Symbolizing Compound Claims 291
“If” and “Only If” 292
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 294
“Unless” 295
“Either . . . Or” 295
Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 298
Three Common Valid Argument Patterns 298
Three Mistakes: Invalid Argument Forms 302
Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 305
The Truth-Table Method 305
The Short Truth-Table Method 308
Deductions 313
Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 314
Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 319
Conditional Proof 327
Recap 330
Additional Exercises 330

Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 338

Argument from Analogy 338
Evaluation of Arguments from Analogy 339
Three Arguments from Analogy 341
Other Uses of Analogy 342
Generalizing from a Sample 347 Page xii
Evaluation of Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 348
Three Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 349
Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 350
The Statistical Syllogism 351
Causal Statements And Their Support 359
Forming Causal Hypotheses 359
Weighing Evidence 361
Confirming Causal Hypotheses 372
Calculating Statistical Probabilities 377
Joint Occurrence of Independent Events 377
Alternative Occurrences 377
Expectation Value 378
Calculating Conditional Probabilities 379
Causation in the Law 380
Recap 381
Additional Exercises 382

Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 390

Value Judgments 391
Moral Versus Nonmoral 392
Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 392
Moral Principles 394
Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 394
Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 397
Consequentialism 397
Duty Theory/Deontologism 398
Moral Relativism 400
Religious Relativism 402
Religious Absolutism 402
Virtue Ethics 402
Moral Deliberation 405
Legal Reasoning 410 Page xiii
Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 411
Aesthetic Reasoning 414
Eight Aesthetic Principles 414
 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 417
Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 419
Why Reason Aesthetically? 420
Recap 422
Additional Exercises 423
Appendix: Exercises from Previous Editions 426
Glossary 450
Answers, Suggestions, and Tips for Triangle Exercises 459
Credits 482
Index 483
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