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The Art of Measuring in
the Thermal Sciences
 Heat Transfer
Series Editor:
Afshin J. Ghajar
Regents Professor, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Oklahoma State University

A SERIES OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND TEXTBOOKS

Engineering Heat Transfer, Third Edition
William S. Janna
Conjugate Problems in Convective Heat Transfer
Abram S. Dorfman
Thermal Measurements and Inverse Techniques
Helcio R.B. Orlande, Olivier Fudym, Denis Maillet, and Renato M. Cotta
Introduction to Thermal and Fluid Engineering
Allan D. Kraus, James R. Welty, and Abdul Aziz
Advances in Industrial Heat Transfer
Alina Adriana Minea, Editor
Introduction to Compressible Fluid Flow, Second Edition
Patrick H. Oosthuizen and William E. Carscallen
District Cooling: Theory and Practice
Alaa A. Olama
Advances in New Heat Transfer Fluids
From Numerical to Experimental Techniques
Alina Adriana Minea, Editor
Finite Difference Methods in Heat Transfer
M. Necati Özişik, Helcio R.B. Orlande, Marcelo J. Colaço, and Renato M. Cotta
Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, Second Edition
S. Mostafa Ghiaasiaan
The Art of Measuring in Thermal Sciences
Josua P. Meyer and Michel De Paepe
The Art of Measuring in
the Thermal Sciences

Edited by
Josua P. Meyer and Michel De Paepe
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion
of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The
MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

First edition published 2021

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-0-367-19290-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-429-20162-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Palatino
by codeMantra
Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................ix
Editors ......................................................................................................................xi
Contributors ......................................................................................................... xiii

Part A Measuring in Thermal Systems:

Reducing Errors and Error Analysis
1. Measuring the Right Data—Verifying Experimental
Boundary Conditions .................................................................................... 3
Christophe T’Joen

2. Measurement Error or Data Trend? How to Conduct

Meaningful Experiments ............................................................................ 21
Thorsten Klahm

3. Uncertainty Analysis of Indirect Measurements in

Thermal Science ............................................................................................ 37
X. Cui, L.C. Wei, C.F. Ma, X.Z. Meng, J.C. Chai, and L.W. Jin

4. Modern Error Analysis in Indirect Measurements in

Thermal Science ............................................................................................ 55
Denis Maillet

Part B Convection Challenges and Energy Balances

5. Wilson Plots and Measurement Accuracy ............................................... 81

Jaime Sieres

6. Test Sections for Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

Measurements: Construction, Calibration, and Validation............... 107
Marilize Everts and Josua P. Meyer

7. Stability Evaluation, Measurements, and Presentations of

Convective Heat Transfer Characteristics of Nanofluids ................... 161
S.M. Sohel Murshed, Mohsen Sharifpur, Solomon Giwa, and
Josua P. Meyer

v
vi Contents

8. Determination of Energy Efficiency of Hot Water Boilers and

Calculation of Measurement Uncertainties........................................... 189
Sotirios Karellas, Panagiotis Vourliotis, Platon Pallis,
Ioannis-Alexandros Sofras, and Emmanuel Kakaras

9. Psychrometric Performance Testing for HVAC&R

Components and Equipment..................................................................... 215
Orkan Kurtulus, Christian K. Bach, Romit Maulik, Omer San,
Davide Ziviani, Craig R. Bradshaw, and Eckhard A. Groll

Part C 
Heat Flux Measurements, Optical
Techniques, and Infrared Thermography
10. Surface Temperature Measurement on Complex Topology by
Infrared Thermography............................................................................. 241
Maximilian Elfner, Hans-Jörg Bauer, and Achmed Schulz

11. Optical Measurements for Phase Change Heat Transfer.................... 267

Jungho Kim, Iztok Golobič, and Janez Štrancar

12. Practical Heat Flux Measurement............................................................ 289

T. E. Diller

13. Heated Meter Bar Techniques: What You Should Know and Why..... 313
Roger Kempers and Anthony Robinson

14. Inverse Problems in Heat Conduction: Accurate Sensor

System Calibration...................................................................................... 337
Stefan Loehle and Fabian Hufgard

Part D Measuring in Two-Phase Flow

15. Challenges and Advances in Measuring Temperatures at

Liquid–Solid Interfaces.............................................................................. 357
Ana S. Moita, Miguel R. O. Panão, Pedro Pontes, Emanuele Teodori,
and António L. N. Moreira

16. Measuring Heat Transfer Coefficient during Condensation

Inside Channels........................................................................................... 385
Davide Del Col, Stefano Bortolin, and Marco Azzolin
Contents vii

17. Optical Measurement Techniques for Liquid–Vapor Phase

Change Heat Transfer................................................................................. 409
Jocelyn Bonjour, Serge Cioulachtjian, Frédéric Lefèvre,
Stéphane Lips, and Rémi Revellin

18. Selected Problems of Experimental Investigations during

Refrigerants Condensation in Minichannels........................................ 435
Tadeusz Bohdal, Henryk Charun, and Małgorzata Sikora

Index...................................................................................................................... 453
Preface

We are proud to present our first book resulting from years of cooperation.
The idea for this book emerged from the sabbatical stay of Michel De Paepe
at the University of Pretoria with Josua P. Meyer in 2018.
This book is aimed at providing scholars, students, and people from indus-
try a scholarly, state-of-the-art overview of good practices for conducting
correct and sound measurements in thermal sciences. All the material in the
book is original, was written by academic experts in the field, and has not
been published before. Every chapter was peer-reviewed for originality by
independent reviewers, who are distinguished subject specialists in the field
of the relevant chapter.
It is a guide for people who want to conduct advanced thermal experiments.
The types of experiments discussed in the book are common in modern
research and the development of thermal systems in the industries of energy
generation, transport, manufacturing, mining, processes, HVAC, biomedical
engineering, etc. Most of what we currently know about thermal sciences
has been learnt by observation and proper data reduction (deduction).
These days, many thermal science problems are being solved numeri-
cally on large grids using the tools of computational fluid dynamics. Even
for these computerized simulations of physical systems, the numerical
simulations in most cases depend on experimental data for validation and
comparison purposes. Therefore, there is a big need for good and accurate
data with known uncertainties. Since the introduction of digital measure-
ment equipment, a lot has changed in the common practice of conducting
measurements. Computers have changed the way and the amount of data
we process. The possibilities and accuracies have grown much due to the
advancement of electronics, but so has the complexity of our work.
Little information is found in the recent literature on how to conduct
scientifically sound and correct measurements. Institutional memory and
practices are being transferred from one person to another in laboratories.
At conferences and in archival journals, little attention is given to this kind
of craftsmanship and at most, the uncertainties and calibration techniques
are reported. Fortunately, most scholarly journals require the reporting of
equipment errors and uncertainties. However, this information is normally
provided so succinctly that it is challenging to learn from it.
This book brings together the expertise of several research teams of the
scientific thermal science community. It gives a unique overview and insight
into advanced measurement techniques and systems, which are normally
never published. The book goes into the fundamentals where possible and
focuses on advanced measurement techniques currently used in thermal

ix
x Preface

systems. It also highlights the challenges and future research opportunities

for measuring practices.
We are grateful to our colleagues in the thermal engineering research field
for sharing their knowledge and expertise. We consider ourselves blessed to
have been able to work at and with institutes of this high level. But mostly we
need to thank our students for teaching us, by hard work in our laboratories,
how to make measurements come to a good end.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product

information,
please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Editors

Josua P. Meyer is a Professor, Head of the Department of Mechanical and

Aeronautical Engineering, and Chair of the School of Engineering in the
Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology. His
area of research is convective heat transfer, which relies on the engineering
sciences of heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and thermodynamics. He and his
students and colleagues have made it possible to predict the heat transfer
characteristics in the previously unknown transitional flow regime. He has
published more than 800 articles, conference papers, and book chapters in
the field of thermal sciences and has successfully supervised more than 100
PhD and MSc students. He established the Clean Energy Research Group at
the University of Pretoria, which now has 40 full-time postgraduate students
and 13 staff members. The group members have developed, designed, and
built more than ten unique, state-of-the-art experimental setups, which are
being used for leading-edge heat transfer research. No other similar exper-
imental setup exists in the world. The group conducts joint research and
publishes with scholars at EPFL, MIT, Ghent, Duke, and INSA Toulouse.

Michel De Paepe is a Professor of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer at

the Department of Flow, Heat and Combustion Mechanics of the Faculty of
Engineering and Architecture of the Ghent University. He is the Program
Director of the Master Electromechanical Engineering at the Ghent
University. He was supervisor/promotor of 19 PhDs and 150 MScs defended
at the Ghent University and is the coauthor of more than 400 articles and con-
ference papers in the field of thermal sciences. In 2002, Professor De Paepe
founded the research group Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer.
Research by this team, with about 15 PhD students and 3 staff members,
focuses on thermodynamics of new energy systems, performance of HVAC
systems, and complex heat transfer phenomena in industrial applications,
as in compact heat exchangers, combustion engines, refrigerant two-phase
flow, and electronics cooling. The team is internationally recognized as an
authority in thermal measurement techniques. Several sensors developed by
this team are being used by high-level laboratories around the world: the
University of Pretoria, INSA Lyon, TU, EPFL, Imperial College London, and
the University of Oxford.

xi
Contributors

Marco Azzolin Craig R. Bradshaw

Department of Industrial Department of Mechanical and
Engineering Aerospace Engineering
University of Padova Building, Environmental and
Padova, Italy Thermal Systems Research
Group
Christian K. Bach Oklahoma State University
Department of Mechanical and Stillwater, Oklahoma
Aerospace Engineering
Building, Environmental and J. C. Chai
Thermal Systems Research Group Department of Engineering and
Oklahoma State University Technology
Stillwater, Oklahoma School of Computing and
Engineering
Hans-Jörg Bauer University of Huddersfield
Institute of Thermal Huddersfield, United Kingdom
Turbomachinery (ITS)
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Henryk Charun
Karlsruhe, Germany Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Department of Energy Engineering
Tadeusz Bohdal Koszalin University of Technology
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Koszalin, Poland
Department of Energy Engineering
Koszalin University of Technology Serge Cioulachtjian
Koszalin, Poland Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA-Lyon,
Université Claude Bernard
Jocelyn Bonjour Lyon 1
Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA-Lyon, CETHIL UMR5008
Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 Villeurbanne, France
CETHIL UMR5008
Villeurbanne, France X. Cui
Institute of Building Environment
Stefano Bortolin and Sustainable Technology
Department of Industrial School of Human Settlements and
Engineering Civil Engineering
University of Padova Xi’an Jiaotong University
Padova, Italy Xi’an, China

xiii
xiv Contributors

Davide Del Col Fabian Hufgard

Department of Industrial Institute of Space Systems
Engineering University of Stuttgart
University of Padova
Padova, Italy L. W. Jin
Institute of Building Environment
T. E. Diller and Sustainable Technology
Mechanical Engineering School of Human Settlements and
Department Civil Engineering
Virginia Tech Xi’an Jiaotong University
Blacksburg, Virginia Xi’an, China

Maximilian Elfner Emmanuel Kakaras

Institute of Thermal Laboratory of Steam Boilers and
Turbomachinery (ITS) Thermal Plants
Karlsruhe Institute of National Technical University of
Technology Athens
Karlsruhe, Germany Athens, Greece

Marilize Everts Sotirios Karellas

Department of Mechanical and Laboratory of Steam Boilers and
Aeronautical Engineering Thermal Plants
University of Pretoria National Technical University of
Pretoria, South Africa Athens
Athens, Greece
Solomon Giwa
Faculty of Engineering Roger Kempers
Department of Mechanical and Department of Mechanical
Aeronautical Engineering Engineering
University of Pretoria York University
Hatfield, South Africa Toronto, Canada

Iztok Golobič Jungho Kim

Faculty of Mechanical Department of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering
University of Ljubljana University of Maryland
Ljubljana, Slovenia College Park, Maryland

Eckhard A. Groll Thorsten Klahm

Ray W. Herrick Laboratories GESMEX Exchangers GmbH
School of Mechanical Engineering Schwerin, Germany
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
Contributors xv

Orkan Kurtulus Romit Maulik

Ray W. Herrick Laboratories Department of Mechanical and
School of Mechanical Engineering Aerospace Engineering
Purdue University Building, Environmental and
West Lafayette, Indiana Thermal Systems Research Group
Oklahoma State University
Frédéric Lefèvre Stillwater, Oklahoma
Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA-Lyon,
Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 X. Z. Meng
CETHIL UMR5008 Institute of Building Environment
Villeurbanne, France and Sustainable Technology
School of Human Settlements and
Stéphane Lips Civil Engineering
Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA-Lyon, Xi’an Jiaotong University
Université Claude Bernard Xi’an, China
Lyon 1
CETHIL UMR5008 Josua P. Meyer
Villeurbanne, France Department of Mechanical and
Aeronautical Engineering
Stefan Loehle University of Pretoria
Institute of Space Systems Pretoria, South Africa
University of Stuttgart
Stuttgart, Germany Ana S. Moita
IN+ Center for Innovation,
C. F. Ma Technology and Policy Research
Institute of Building Environment Mechanical Engineering
and Sustainable Technology Department
School of Human Settlements and Instituto Superior Técnico,
Civil Engineering Universidade de Lisboa
Xi’an Jiaotong University Lisboa, Portugal
Xi’an, China
António L. N. Moreira
Denis Maillet IN+ Center for Innovation,
Laboratoire Énergies & Mécanique Technology and Policy Research
Théorique et Appliquée (LEMTA) Mechanical Engineering
University of Lorraine, CNRS Department
Nancy, France Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa
Lisboa, Portugal
xvi Contributors

Platon Pallis Achmed Schulz

Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Retired
Thermal Plants
National Technical University of Mohsen Sharifpur
Athens Faculty of Engineering
Athens, Greece Department of Mechanical and
Aeronautical Engineering
Miguel R. O. Panão University of Pretoria
ADAI-LAETA, Mechanical Hatfield, South Africa
Engineering Department
University of Coimbra Jaime Sieres
Coimbra, Portugal Área de Máquinas y Motores
Térmicos
Pedro Pontes University of Vigo
IN+ Center for Innovation, Vigo, Spain
Technology and Policy Research
Mechanical Engineering Małgorzata Sikora
Department Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Instituto Superior Técnico, Department of Energy Engineering
Universidade de Lisboa Koszalin University of Technology
Lisboa, Portugal Koszalin, Poland

Rémi Revellin Ioannis-Alexandros Sofras

Laboratoire CETHIL, INSA-Lyon Laboratory of Steam Boilers and
University Thermal Plants
National Technical University of
Anthony Robinson Athens
Trinity College Dublin Athens, Greece
Dublin, Ireland
S. M. Sohel Murshed
Romuald Rullière Department of Mechanical
Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA-Lyon, Engineering
Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 Center for Innovation, Technology
CETHIL UMR5008 and Policy Research
Villeurbanne, France Instituto Superior Técnico
Universidade de Lisboa
Omer San Lisboa, Portugal
Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering Janez Štrancar
Building, Environmental and Condensed Matter Physics
Thermal Systems Research Group Department
Oklahoma State University Jožef Stefan Institute
Stillwater, Oklahoma Ljubljana, Slovenia
Contributors xvii

Christophe T’Joen L. C. Wei

Department of Electromechanical, Institute of Building Environment
Systems and Metal Engineering and Sustainable Technology
Sustainable Thermo-Fluid Energy School of Human Settlements and
Systems Civil Engineering
Ghent University Xi’an Jiaotong University
Ghent, Belgium Xi’an, China
and
Emanuele Teodori Shenzhen Envicool Technology Co.,
ASML Holding N.V Ltd.
Veldhoven, The Netherlands Shenzhen, China

Panagiotis Vourliotis Davide Ziviani

Laboratory of Steam Boilers and Ray W. Herrick Laboratories
Thermal Plants School of Mechanical Engineering
National Technical University of Purdue University
Athens West Lafayette, Indiana
Athens, Greece
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