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Theory and Practice

DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 1

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

FOUNDING EDITOR

Marlin O. Thurston
Department of Electrical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

1. Rational Fault Analysis, edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty

2. Nonparametric Methods in Communications, edited by
P. Papantoni-Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos
3. Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yi-tzuu Chien
4. Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr
5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials,
Klaus Schröder
6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang
7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications,
Samuel Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas
9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen
10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard Saeks
11. Modern Digital Control Systems, Raymond G. Jacquot
12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Roydn D. Jones
13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User’s Guide
to Practice and Specification, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, Richard H. Engelmann
15. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C. Andreas
16. Electromagnetic Compossibility, Heinz M. Schlicke
17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G. Gottling
18. Digital Filter Design Handbook, Fred J. Taylor
19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction, P. K. Sinha
20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley,
with contributions by Carl A. Edstrom, Jr., Ray D. Greenway,
and William P. Kelly
21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, Thomas E. Browne, Jr.
22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design, K. Kit Sum
23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems, Sing-Tze Bow
24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication, Stanley L. Hurst
25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, Ronald C. Emery
26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Magdi S. Mahmoud,
Mohamed F. Hassan, and Mohamed G. Darwish
27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi
and Cedric V. W. Armstrong (Sponsored by Ontario Centre
for Microelectronics)
28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design, Michael P. Perry
29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 2

30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications: Analysis and Control,

Sakae Yamamura
31. Ceramic Motors for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
edited by Relva C. Buchanan
32. Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, Arthur L. Dexter
33. End User’s Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging, Jay J. Miniet
34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design, Norman B. Fuqua
35. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control,
Frank W. Kussy and Jack L. Warren
36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R. Salmon
37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, J. Lewis Blackburn
38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell
39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam
40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems,
Venkatachari Rajagopalan
41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek
42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl E. Swartzlander, Jr.
43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Bellanger
44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications,
edited by Lionel M. Levinson
45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford
46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Naim A. Kheir
47. Rigid-Flex Printed Wiring Design for Production Readiness, Walter S. Rigling
48. Analog Methods for Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis and Diagnosis,
edited by Takao Ozawa
49. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
50. Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction,
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
51. Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H. Chen
52. Electronic Product Design for Automated Manufacturing, H. Richard Stillwell
53. Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney
and Erminia Vaccari
54. FET Technology and Application: An Introduction, Edwin S. Oxner
55. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition, Sadaoki Furui
56. VLSI RISC Architecture and Organization, Stephen B. Furber
57. Surface Mount and Related Technologies, Gerald Ginsberg
58. Uninterruptible Power Supplies: Power Conditioners for Critical Equipment,
David C. Griffith
59. Polyphase Induction Motors: Analysis, Design, and Application,
Paul L. Cochran
60. Battery Technology Handbook, edited by H. A. Kiehne
61. Network Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis, edited by Ricardo F. Garzia
and Mario R. Garzia
62. Linear Circuits, Systems, and Signal Processing: Advanced Theory
and Applications, edited by Nobuo Nagai
63. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, edited by M. Khalifa
64. Large-Scale Systems Control and Decision Making, edited by Hiroyuki Tamura
and Tsuneo Yoshikawa
65. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems, Kao Chen
66. Distributed Computer Control for Industrial Automation, Dobrivoje Popovic
and Vijay P. Bhatkar
67. Computer-Aided Analysis of Active Circuits, Adrian Ioinovici
68. Designing with Analog Switches, Steve Moore
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 3

69. Contamination Effects on Electronic Products, Carl J. Tautscher

70. Computer-Operated Systems Control, Magdi S. Mahmoud
71. Integrated Microwave Circuits, edited by Yoshihiro Konishi
72. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Relva C. Buchanan
73. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, David A. Weston
74. Intelligent Robotic Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
75. Switching Phenomena in High-Voltage Circuit Breakers,
edited by Kunio Nakanishi
76. Advances in Speech Signal Processing, edited by Sadaoki Furui
and M. Mohan Sondhi
77. Pattern Recognition and Image Preprocessing, Sing-Tze Bow
78. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Second Edition,
John C. Andreas
79. Stochastic Large-Scale Engineering Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
and Keigo Watanabe
80. Two-Dimensional Digital Filters, Wu-Sheng Lu and Andreas Antoniou
81. Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Switch-Mode Power Supplies,
Yim-Shu Lee
82. Placement and Routing of Electronic Modules, edited by Michael Pecht
83. Applied Control: Current Trends and Modern Methodologies,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
84. Algorithms for Computer-Aided Design of Multivariable Control Systems,
Stanoje Bingulac and Hugh F. VanLandingham
85. Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering,
J. Lewis Blackburn
86. Advanced Digital Signal Processing: Theory and Applications,
Glenn Zelniker and Fred J. Taylor
87. Neural Networks and Simulation Methods, Jian-Kang Wu
88. Power Distribution Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications,
James J. Burke
89. Modern Digital Control Systems: Second Edition, Raymond G. Jacquot
90. Adaptive IIR Filtering in Signal Processing and Control, Phillip A. Regalia
91. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Eugene R. Hnatek
92. Handbook of Electric Motors, edited by Richard H. Engelmann
and William H. Middendorf
93. Power-Switching Converters, Simon S. Ang
94. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation: Second Edition,
Naim A. Kheir
95. EMI Filter Design, Richard Lee Ozenbaugh
96. Power Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Haim Taraseiskey
97. Robust Control System Design: Advanced State Space Techniques,
Chia-Chi Tsui
98. Spatial Electric Load Forecasting, H. Lee Willis
99. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications,
Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing
100. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications, Ruben D. Garzon
101. Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design, Thor Hegbom
102. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User’s Guide
to Practice and Specification, Second Edition, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
103. Statistical Methods in Control and Signal Processing, edited by
Tohru Katayama and Sueo Sugimoto
104. Radio Receiver Design, Robert C. Dixon
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 4

105. Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, edited by Paul G. Slade

106. Handbook of Electrical Engineering Calculations, edited by Arun G. Phadke
107. Reliability Control for Electronic Systems, Donald J. LaCombe
108. Embedded Systems Design with 8051 Microcontrollers: Hardware
and Software, Zdravko Karakehayov, Knud Smed Christensen
and Ole Winther
109. Pilot Protective Relaying, edited by Walter A. Elmore
110. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Mazen Abdel-Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab El-Morshedy,
and Roshdy Radwan
111. EMI Filter Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Richard Lee Ozenbaugh
112. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, David Weston
113. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing
114. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Ruben D. Garzon
115. High Reliability Magnetic Devices: Design and Fabrication,
Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
116. Practical Reliability of Electronic Equipment and Products, Eugene R. Hnatek
117. Electromagnetic Modeling by Finite Element Methods, João Pedro A. Bastos
and Nelson Sadowski
118. Battery Technology Handbook, Second Edition, edited by H. A. Kiehne
119. Power Converter Circuits, William Shepherd and Li Zhang
120. Handbook of Electric Motors: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Hamid A. Toliyat and Gerald B. Kliman
121. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm T. McLyman
122. Energy Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Ali Emadi
123. Power-Switching Converters, Second Edition, Simon Ang and Alejandro Oliva
124. Process Imaging For Automatic Control, edited by David M. Scott
and Hugh McCann
125. Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Ali Emadi
126. Adaptive Antennas and Receivers, edited by Melvin M. Weiner
127. SPICE for Power Electronics and Electric Power, Second Edition,
Muhammad H. Rashid and Hasan M. Rashid
128. Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice, Gorur Govinda Raju
129. Noise of Polyphase Electric Motors, Jacek F. Gieras, Chong Wang,
and Joseph Cho Lai
DK6044_title 10/7/05 3:36 PM Page 1

Theory and Practice

Gorur Govinda Raju University of Windsor

Ontario, Canada

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
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Raju, Gorur G., 1937-

Gaseous electronics : theory and practice / Gorur G. Raju.
p. cm. – (Electical and computer engineering ; 127)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3763-1 (alk. paper)
Electric discharges through gases – Textbooks. 2. Ionization of gases – Textbooks. 3. Gas dynamics –
Textbooks. I. Title. II. Series.

QC711.R235 2005
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 Dedicated to

Gorur (India), a place I left long years ago as an aspiring youth

and
Windsor (Ontario, Canada) where I have been fortunate enough to
live longer than anywhere else.
Preface
Studies of the interaction of electrons with gas neutrals, excited states, and other charge
carriers are generally defined as gaseous electronics. While the ordinary fluorescent bulb
and neon sign are examples of industrial applications, one of the most striking develop-
ments in modern society has been the explosion of applications of lasers. From delicate
eye surgery to metal cutting, from the physics laboratory to research on fusion studies, gas
lasers function according to the theoretical concepts and experimental techniques developed
in this area. Areas that involve this branch of knowledge include medicine, electrical and
mechanical engineering, environmental studies, defense applications, just to name a few.
In nature, lightning and aurora lights are spectacular examples of electron interaction
with gas molecules, while the everyday occurrence of red evening sky is a reminder of
such interaction even when tranquil conditions prevail. The relatively innocuous electron–
molecule interactions culminate in the awesome power of plasma, both in nature and the
laboratory, in the destructive power of lightning, and the magnificent northern lights.
The study of gaseous electronics is over one hundred years old, beginning with the
discovery of cathode rays in 1876, though one could arguably refer to the sparks observed
with the Leyden jar circa 1750. In 1860, Maxwell’s classical treatment of molecules as a
group of particles and the velocity distribution within the group defined many concepts that
would later be carried into the study of electron motion in gases. Rapid development
of ingenious experimental techniques by Townsend in England and Ramsauer in Germany
laid the solid foundation for studies of electrons in swarms and beams respectively. The
advent of quantum mechanics gave a powerful tool for theoretical development of electron–
molecule scattering, and the laser technology added impetus for renewed interest in this area.
For some time a need has been felt for a volume on gaseous electronics, considering
the explosion of scientific literature published on all aspects of electron interaction with and
without the application of an external electric field. At times this vast wealth of knowledge
has appeared to be scattered in a seemingly hopeless disarray, discouraging even a modest
attempt to classify and categorize the available information. The availability of online
journals and modern software on personal computers for drawing graphs, digitizing for
numerical integration and interpolation, and so on, combined with the long, cold Canadian,
winters, has prodded the author to make such an attempt.
The present volume is intended to serve the following objectives:

1. To serve as a graduate and senior-level undergraduate textbook.

2. To provide experimental data with adequate but not overwhelming theoretical
discussion. Excellent treatment of theoretical aspects have been presented in books
by Massey and Burhop,1 McDaniel,2 Loeb,3 MacDonald,4 and Hasted.5 Books by
Meek and Craggs6 and Roth7 present different aspects of the discharge and plasma
phenomena respectively. The present volume is meant to serve as complementary
to this list.
3. To classify the data on cross sections, drift and diffusion, and ionization phenom-
ena. The book concentrates largely on the critical evaluation of the available data
in many gases, although the sheer volume of such data has precluded consideration
of all gases.
 Preface

4. To supply a resource material for established researchers and scholars.

5. To offer a source book for industrial and nonacademic users who seek data
without needing to plough through the niceties of theoretical analyses and
experimental sophistication.

Chapter 1 begins with an introduction to electron–neutral collision physics and, in view

of the literature previously referred to, the treatment has been kept at a level that is
easy to follow. The meaning of velocity space is explained as this is the central concept
in the understanding of the energy distribution. The various cross sections are defined
and the relation that exists between them is described. The quantum mechanical approach
to scattering is introduced as this is the basis on which the Ramsauer–Townsend effect is
understood. Though ion mobilities are not included as a separate chapter of presentation,
the basic theory is included in view of its role in space charge build-up and secondary
effects at the cathode. Since each subsequent chapter begins with a limited exposition of
the theory necessary to understand the topic, the first chapter is made desirably concise.
Chapter 2 attempts to provide an overview of experimental techniques that are
employed to measure collision cross sections. The methods for measuring other quantities
such as swarm coefficients, drift velocities etc. are treated in later chapters. A large number
of ingenious techniques, employing crossed beams, have been developed since the early
beam experiments of Ramsauer and Brode (Figure 2.1). The principles involved in these
measurements have been explained with selected reference to the measures adopted to
improve accuracy and repeatability.
The techniques chosen for description are by no means exhaustive but have rele-
vance to scattering cross sections discussed in Chapters 3 to 5. The bias in choosing which
method to include has been the parameters that are relevant to discharge phenomena, and
therefore the methods for measuring electronic excitation and ro-vibrational excitation
have not been dealt with at great length. Recent advances in the measurement of angular
differential cross sections, adopted by Cubric et al. (Figure 2.12), dispense with the need
to rotate the relative position of the detector with respect to the collision region. Adoption of
this technique to several gases should yield data that do not require interpolation at very
low and very large angles, improving the accuracy. The ionization cross sections measured
by Rapp and Englander-Golden in about fifteen gases have set a standard for accuracy
and reliability. Their method is explained (Figure 2.13) and the more recent measurement
method of Straub and colleagues (reference 71 of Chapter 2) has been described in a later
chapter. Due to limitations of space it has not been possible to include methods for
measuring attachment cross sections, though a brief explanation of the swarm technique
(reference 116 of Chapter 2) is given.
Chapter 3 deals with scattering cross sections in rare gases with all aspects of measure-
ments taken into account. Data available in the literature have been compiled and systemati-
cally categorized. A critical analysis is carried out and it is believed that this is the first
time that such a comprehensive review has been made available. The gases considered
are arranged in alphabetical order to avoid repetition—which becomes inevitable in the
traditional method of dealing with gases with increasing atomic weight; helium first, neon
next and so on. The cross sections compiled are mainly those measured during the
past twenty-five years, though earlier publications are referred to as required. Results of
new computations are included, as found necessary, for obtaining the momentum transfer
and elastic scattering cross sections from differential cross sections measured as a function
of angle of scattering.
All cross sections of each gas have been added to obtain the total cross sections in the
energy range 0 to 1000 eV and compared with the measured total cross section. This kind
of information, it is believed, has been provided for the first time over the entire energy
Preface

range though excellent reviews (reference 10 of Chapter 3) are available that cover fewer
energy values. To facilitate comparison, most of the curves of cross sections as a function
of energy have been redrawn and grid lines have been retained for finding the approximate
value in rapid mode. This method of providing cross section data, in addition to the tabular
form, has been adopted throughout the volume.
Analytical representation of cross sections as a function of energy is required for the
purposes of modeling, energy distribution computations, and simulation studies. Many
such equations have been provided, though more work needs to be done to represent
momentum transfer cross sections as a function of energy. As far as the author is aware there
has been only a single equation available for argon (reference 107 of Chapter 3) and the
rapid variation of cross section as a function of energy due to the Ramsauer–Townsend
effect and the rather broader variation at higher energies due to shape resonance render
the problem difficult.
Cross sections in the very low energy range are also represented analytically by the
modified effective range theory (MERT). Each gas is discussed in the light of this theory
and appropriate information is given. Again, it is thought, this is the first time that such
a compilation has been made available in a single volume and the author expresses the
opinion that this powerful technique has not been used adequately for molecular gases.
Significant experimental investigations of low-energy inelastic collision cross sections in
several gases have now become available (reference 41 of Chapter 4).
Chapter 4 continues with the presentation of cross sections of diatomic gases. The
gases considered are carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and
nitric oxide (NO). CO and NO are polar and electron attaching. O2 is electron attaching
without possessing a permanent dipole moment. The remaining gases (H2 and N2) are
both nonpolar and nonelectron attaching. The long-range dipole interaction between the
electron and molecule in polar gases presents difficulties for complete theoretical under-
standing and experimental measurements are the main source, unlike the case with rare
gases (Chapter 3) where theory can supplement experiment. The influence played by
dipolar moment and electron attachment is highlighted and a broad interpretation of shape
resonance as applicable to the gases considered is provided. The interaction potential is an
integral part of the theory and a brief description of the potentials is included in Chapter 1.
The similarities and differences in the cross section–energy behavior of isoelectronic
molecules are dealt with.
The presentation of scattering cross section data is continued in Chapter 5, with attention
focusing upon a variety of complex molecules. Polyatomic molecules such as SF6 and CO2
are nonpolar but electron attaching. On the other hand, there are a number of gases which
are both attaching and polar. Extensive discussion is not presented for a few gases that
have been analyzed thoroughly in recent years (reference 174 in Chapter 5). These gases
include SF6, CCl2F2, CF4, and selected fluorocarbons. Gases of environmental concern such
as NO2, N2O, SO2, and O3 are also considered, though in some cases the data appear in
a later chapter. Chapter 5 concludes with a discussion of how the ionization cross section
can be understood by using the most common parameters of a gas neutral: the ratio of the
maximum of the ionization cross section to the ionization cross section at a given energy.
Another attractive formulation is due to Hudson (reference 302 of Chapter 5) and involves
the polarization of the molecule and its ionization potential. Considerable scope exists
for original research in exploring this idea with necessary modifications to accommodate the
specifics of a molecule under investigation.
While scattering cross sections are measured by using beam techniques, the focus
now shifts to electron swarms. At the turn of the twentieth century the discovery of the
electron and the advent of quantum mechanics gave birth to two schools of investigators.
One school, led by Ramsauer and colleagues, adopted beam techniques; the other school,
 Preface

led by Townsend, adopted the swarm technique in which the electrons move through
the gaseous medium under the influence of an applied external field. From the results of these
investigations the details of electron–neutral interactions were deciphered. The method of
measuring the drift velocity by employing grids (reference 6 of Chapter 6) and the availabil-
ity of the oscilloscope facilitated the measurement of drift velocity of electrons. Development
of the theory of diffusion by Huxley (reference 9 of Chapter 6) and the measurement of
the diffusion coefficient by the use of the concentric and insulated collector led the method
of approach. The experimental discovery of the lateral diffusion coefficient (reference 92
of Chapter 6) was followed by advancement of the theory to explain the observed results
(references 93 and 94 of Chapter 6).
Chapter 6 summarizes the data on drift and diffusion of electrons in several gases
as a function of reduced electric field E/N (E ¼ electric field, N ¼ gas number density). Early
measurements of these parameters at low values of E/N (reference 118 of Chapter 6) have
been extended to larger E/N values in various laboratories and a compilation of these is
presented. Analytical expressions for a wide range of E/N are given, with an analysis of
the range of applicability and the limits of accuracy. It is appropriate to comment that the
best fitting equation given for the purpose of simulation etc. does not imply that there
is theoretical background for that form of equation.
Swarm parameters have been measured as an end in themselves, and also to obtain
low-energy momentum transfer cross sections where experimental difficulties render the
measurements less accurate. The method of unfolding the swarm parameters to obtain the
low-energy momentum transfer cross sections was pioneered in the early 1960s (reference 156
of Chapter 6) and extended to many gases. The results of these investigations have been
blended into the data presented in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 continues the presentation of these data to more complex molecules. Hydro-
carbon gases, nitrogen compounds, and plasma industrial gases have been considered over
a wide range of E/N.
Chapter 8 deals with the ionization process and presents the first ionization coefficient
in nonattaching gases. Both the steady state method and time-resolved current methods
have been employed and the data cover a wide range of E/N. At higher values of E/N the
drift velocity and diffusion coefficients are subject to ionization effects and results obtained
by simulation or theoretical computation are not excluded, though attention has been drawn
to situations where experimental confirmation is desirable.
Chapter 9 extends the presentation of ionization coefficients to electron-attaching
gases. Electron attachment is a process that depletes electrons from the ionization region.
It may be a two-body process (electron and molecule) or a three-body process (electron
and two molecules). Dissociative attachment involves the dissociation of the molecule and
the attachment of the electron to one of the fragments. Dissociative attachment cross section
is dominant at relatively low energies while at higher energies ion pair formation is
more frequently encountered. The change of the familiar Townsend’s semiempirical relation
due to attachment is explained by several examples. The chapter provides attachment
cross sections for several gases in addition to ionization and attachment coefficients. A point
to note is that collision cross sections have been provided for some gases for which these
data were not given earlier.
Chapter 10 shifts the focus to high-voltage phenomena in gaseous electronics, though in
a compact form necessitated by limitation of space. For our present purpose high voltage
is defined as that above 200 kV with no restriction on electrode geometry, gap length,
or polarity of the voltage. This definition is, of course, purely arbitrary to serve the purpose
of limiting the topics for inclusion. Only large air gaps of relevance to high-voltage power
transmission and sulfurhexafluoride at elevated gas pressures have been considered. As
an introduction to the chapter, methods of generating high voltages in the laboratory are
Preface

described, though measurement aspects have had to be deleted. Standard volumes (reference
2 of Chapter 10) deal exhaustively with these methods. Switching impulse breakdown of
large air gaps and volt–time characteristics of compressed gases have been briefly considered.
Chapter 11 concerns ionization and breakdown in crossed electric and magnetic fields.
This area of research is still only moderately explored, relatively to the volume of literature
available on other areas of gaseous electronics. The potential industrial uses of this type
of discharge are at least as promising as those of other areas of research and the author
is aware of just a single review paper (reference 2 of Chapter 11), published in 1980. The
chapter begins by describing the motion of charge carriers in crossed fields in vacuum and
extends the discussion to phenomena in the presence of gaseous neutrals. The effective
reduced electric field concept is described, as is the influence of a crossed magnetic field on
the ionization coefficients. Quantitative data on Townsend’s first ionization coefficient
in gases as a function of reduced electric and magnetic fields have been compiled for the
first time, to the extent available. The effects of a crossed magnetic field on breakdown,
time lags, and corona formation in nonuniform fields are described. Results obtained
by computational methods are commented upon, with brief comments on the research to be
completed.
The final chapter deals with high-frequency breakdown, included for completeness
in view of the needs of beginners and students. RF discharges have assumed an important
role in view of the explosive electronic industry, and discharge phenomena are described.
A software package available (reference 11 of Chapter 12) has, in the author’s opinion, served
well to elucidate the complexities of this type of discharge and to provide visual images of
the influence of various parameters on the discharge phenomena. Both microwave break-
down and laser breakdown are dealt with, largely for the sake of completeness.
The present volume is the culmination of forty-seven years of the author’s interac-
tion with the study of gaseous electronics, beginning with his first entry to the Department
of High Voltage Engineering at the Indian Institute of Science in 1958 as a graduate student.
The topics chosen to be included have a personal bias, of course, though he has personally
studied and researched in all the topics chosen, some with greater intensity than others. It
is realized that topics such as ion mobilities, photo-ionization cross sections, and recent
advances in lightning research have not been included due to limitations of space.

REFERENCES
1. Massey, H. S. W. and E. H. S. Burhop, Electronic and Ionic Impact Phenomena, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 1952.
2. McDaniel, E. W., Collision Phenomena in Ionized Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1964.
3. Loeb, L. B., Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics, University of California Press, Berkeley,
1965.
4. MacDonald, A. D., Microwave Breakdown in Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966.
5. Hasted, J. B., Physics of Atomic Collisions, Elsevier, New York, 1972.
6. Meek, J. M. and J. D. Craggs, Electrical Breakdown of Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1978.
7. Roth, J., Industrial Plasma Engineering, vol 1., Principles, Institute of Physics Publishing,
Bristol, 1995.
About the Author
Gorur Govinda Raju was born in 1937. He obtained the B.Eng. degree in electrical engineer-
ing from the University of Bangalore, India, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of
Liverpool, United Kingdom. He then worked in research laboratories of Associated
Electrical Industries, United Kingdom. He joined the Department of High Voltage
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and became its head from 1975 to
1980. He has held the Leverhulme Fellowship and Commonwealth Fellowship at the
University of Sheffield, United Kingdom. He joined the University of Windsor, Ontario,
Canada, in 1980 and became the Head of the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering during 1989–1997 and 2000–2002. He is currently an Emeritus Professor at the
University of Windsor. He has published over 130 research papers and two previous books.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer and Fellow of the Institute of Engineers, India.
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