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 Number Theory revealed

Notes du cours de MAT3632 Automne 2018

Current address: Andrew Granville, Département de mathématiques et de
statistique, Université de Montréal, CP 6128 succ. Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC
H3C 3J7, Canada.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Les charmes enchanteurs de cette science sublime se
révéler seulement à ceux qui ont le courage d’y aller
profondément.
Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1807.
Contents

Preface v

Gauss’s “Disquisitiones Arithmeticae” ix

Notation xi
The language of mathematics xii

Prerequisites xiii

Preliminary Chapter on Induction 1

0.1. Fibonacci numbers and other recurrence sequences 1
0.2. Formulas for sums of powers of integers 3
0.3. The binomial theorem, Pascal’s triangle and the binomial coefficients 4
Articles with further thoughts on factorials and binomial coefficients 6
Additional exercises 6
A paper that questions one’s assumptions is 8

Chapter 1. The Euclidean Algorithm 11

1.1. Finding the gcd 11
1.2. Linear combinations 13
1.3. The set of linear combinations of two integers 15
1.4. Continued Fractions 17
1
1.5. Tiling a rectangle with squares 18
1.6. The least common multiple 19
Additional exercises 20
Divisors in recurrence sequences 22

Appendix 1A: Reformulating the Euclidean Algorithm 23

iii
iv Contents

1.7. Euclid matrices, and Euclid’s algorithm 23

1.8. Euclid matrices, and ideal transformations 25
1.9. The dynamics of the Euclidean algorithm 26
Chapter 2. Congruences 29
2.1. Basic Congruences 29
2.2. The trouble with division 32
2.3. Congruences for polynomials 34
2.4. Tests for divisibility 34
Additional exercises 35
Binomial coefficients mod p 36
The Fibonacci numbers mod d 37
Appendix 2A: Congruences in the language of groups 39
2.5. Further discussion of the basic notion of congruence 39
2.6. Cosets of an additive group 40
2.7. A new family of rings and fields 41
2.8. The order of an element 41
Hints for exercises 43
Preface

This is a modern introduction to number theory, aimed at several different audi-

ences: Students who have little experience of university level mathematics, students
who are completing an undergraduate degree in mathematics, as well as students
who are completing a mathematics teaching qualification. Like most introductions
to number theory, our contents are largely inspired by Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arith-
meticae (1801), though we also include many modern developments. We have gone
back to Gauss to borrow several excellent examples to highlight the theory.
There are many different topics that might be included in an introductory
course in number theory, and others, like the law of quadratic reciprocity, that
surely must appear in any such course. We therefore present a “minimal” course
in the first dozen chapters of the book, and then flesh out these topics, in copious
appendices. Moreover we include five additional chapters on more advanced themes.
Much of modern mathematics germinated from number theoretic seed and one
of our goals is to help the student appreciate the connection between the relatively
simply defined concepts in number theory and their more abstract generalizations
in other courses. For example, our appendices allow us to highlight how mod-
ern algebra stems from investigations into number theory, and therefore serve as an
introduction to algebra (including rings, modules, ideals, Galois theory, p-adic num-
bers,...). These appendices can be given as additional reading, perhaps as student
projects, and we point the reader to further references.
Following Gauss, we often develop examples before giving a formal definition
and a theorem, firstly to see how the concept arises naturally, secondly to conjecture
a theorem that describes an evident pattern, and thirdly to see how a proof of the
theorem emerges from understanding some non-trivial examples.

Why study number theory? Questions arise when studying any subject, some-
times fascinating questions that may be difficult to answer precisely. Number theory
is the study of the most basic properties of the integers, literally taking integers
apart to see how they are built, and there we find an internal beauty and coherence

v
vi Preface

that encourages many of us to seek to understand more. Facts are often revealed by
calculations, and then researchers seek proofs. Sometimes the proofs themselves,
even more than the theorem they prove, have an elegance that is beguiling, and
reveal that there is so much more to understand. With good reason, Gauss called
number theory the “Queen of Mathematics”, ever mysterious, but nonetheless gra-
ciously sharing with those that find themselves interested. In this first course there
is much that is accessible, while at the same time natural, easily framed, questions
arise which remain open, stumping the brightest minds.
Once celebrated as one of the more abstract subjects in mathematics, today
there are scores of applications of number theory in the real world, particularly to
the theory and practice of computer algorithms. Best known is the use of number
theory in designing cryptographic protocols (as discussed in chapter 10), hiding
our secrets behind the seeming difficulty of factoring large numbers which only
have large prime factors.
For some students, studying number theory is a life-changing experience: they
find themselves excited to go on to penetrate more deeply, or perhaps to pursue
some of the fascinating applications of the subject.

Why give proofs? We give proofs to convince ourselves and others that our
reasoning is correct. Starting from agreed upon truths, we try to derive a further
truth, being explicit and precise about each step of our reasoning. A proof must
be readable by people besides the author. It is a way of communicating ideas and
needs to be persuasive, not just to the writer but also to a mathematically literate
person who cannot obtain further clarification from the writer on any point that is
unclear. It is not enough that the writer believes it, it must be clear to others. The
burden of proof lies with the author.
The word “proof” can mean different things in different disciplines. In some
disciplines a “proof” can be several different examples that justify a stated hypoth-
esis, but this is inadequate in mathematics: One can have a thousand examples that
work as predicted by the hypothesis, but the thousand and first might contradict
it. Therefore to “prove” a theorem, one must build an incontrovertible argument
up from first principles, so that the statement must be true, assuming that those
first principles are true.
Occasionally we give more than one proof of an important theorem, to highlight
how inevitably the subject develops, as well as to give the instructor different
options for how to present the material. (Few students will benefit from seeing
all of the proofs their first time encountering this material.)
An unusual feature of the book is that exercises appear embedded in the text.2
This is done to enable the student to complete the proofs of theorems.3 This
does not require the students to come up with new ideas but rather to follow the
arguments given so as to fill in the gaps. For less experienced students it helps
to write out the solutions to these exercises; more experienced students might just
satisfy themselves that they can provide an appropriate proof.

2Though all of the exercises can be downloaded, as a separate list, from ....
3Often students have little experience with proofs, and struggle with the level of sophistication
required, at least without adequate guidance.
Preface vii

Motivation. Challenging mathematics courses, such as point-set topology, al-

gebraic topology, measure theory, differential geometry, and so on, tend to be dom-
inated at first by formal language and requirements. Little is given by way of
motivation. Sometimes these courses are presented as a prerequisite for topics that
will come later. There is little or no attempt to explain what all this theory is good
for, or why it was developed in the first place. Students are expected to subject
themselves to the course, motivated primarily by trust.
How boring! Mathematics surely should not be developed only for those few
who already know that they wish to specialize, and have a high tolerance for bore-
dom. We should help our students to appreciate and cherish the beauty of math-
ematics. Surely courses should be motivated by a series of interesting questions?
The right questions will highlight the benefits of an abstract framework, so that
the student will wish to explore even the most rarified paths herself, as the bene-
fits become obvious. Number theory does not require much in the way of formal
prerequisites, and there are easy ways to justify most of its abstraction.
In this book, we hope to capture the attention and enthusiasm of the reader
with the right questions, guiding her as she embarks for the first time on this
fascinating journey.

Student expectations. For some students, number theory is their first course
that formulates abstract statements of theorems, which can take them outside of
their “comfort zone”. This can be quite a challenge, especially as high school
pedagogy moves increasingly to training students to learn and use sophisticated
techniques, rather than appreciate how those techniques arose. We believe that
one can best use (and adapt) methods if one fully appreciates their genesis, so
we make no apologies for this feature of the elementary number theory course.
However this means that some students will be forced to adjust their personal
expectations. Future teachers sometimes ask why they need to learn material,
and take a perspective, so far beyond what they will be expected to teach in high
school. There are many answers to this question; one is that, in the long term, the
material in high school will be more fulfilling if one can see its long-term purpose. A
second response is that every teacher will be confronted by students who are bored
with their high-school course and desperately seeking harder intellectual challenges
(whether they realize it themselves or not); the first few chapters of this book should
provide the kind of intellectual stimulation those students need.
A few questions in this book are open ended, others are purposely misleading.
One reason for this is that the student who tries to develop those themes her-or-
himself, might embark upon a rewarding voyage of discovery. Once, after I had
set the exercises in section ?? for homework, some students complained how unfair
they felt these questions were, but were silenced by another student who announced
that it was so much fun for him to work out the answers that he now knew what
he wanted to do with his life!

Special features of our syllabus. Number theory sometimes serves as an intro-

duction to “proof techniques”. We give many exercises to practice those techniques,
but to make it less boring, we do so while developing certain themes as the book
viii Preface

progresses; for examples, the theory of recurrence sequences, and properties of bi-
nomial coefficients. We dedicate a preliminary chapter to induction, and use it to
develop the theory of sums of powers.
Our most unconventional choice is to give a version of Rousseau’s proof of the
law of quadratic reciprocity, which is directly motivated by Gauss’s proof of Wil-
son’s Theorem. This proof avoids Gauss’s Lemma so is a lot easier for a beginning
student than Eisenstein’s elegant proof (which we give in section ?? of appendix
8A). Gauss’s original proof of quadratic reciprocity is more motivated by the intro-
ductory material, although a bit more complicated than these other two proofs. We
include Gauss’s original proof in section ?? of appendix 8D, and we also understand
(2/n) in his way, in the basic course, to interest the reader. We present several other
proofs, including a particularly elegant proof using Gauss sums in section ??.

Further exploration of number theory. There is a tremendous leap in the level

of mathematical knowledge required to take graduate courses in number theory,
because curricula expect the student to have taken (and appreciated) several other
relevant courses. This is a shame since there is so much beautiful advanced material
that is easily accessible after finishing an introductory course. Moreover, it can be
easier to study other courses, if one already understands their importance, rather
than taking it on trust. Thus this book, Number Theory Revealed is designed to
lead to two subsequent books, which develop the two main thrusts of number theory
research:
In The distribution of primes: An introduction to analytic number theory, we
will discuss how number theorists have sought to develop the themes of Chapter 5
(as well as chapters 4 and 13). In particular we prove the prime number theorem,
based on the extraordinary ideas of Riemann. This proof rests heavily on certain
ideas from complex analysis, which we will outline in a way that is relevant for a
good understanding of the proofs.
In Rational points on curves: An introduction to arithmetic geometry, we look
at solutions to Diophantine equations, especially those of degree two and three,
extending the ideas of Chapter 12 (as well as chapters 14 and 17). In particular we
will prove Mordell’s Theorem, and gain a basic understanding of modular forms,
outlining some of the main steps in Wiles’ proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem. We
avoid a deep understanding of algebraic geometry, instead proceeding by more
elementary techniques and a little complex analysis (which we explain).

Thanks. I would like to thank the many inspiring mathematicians who have
helped me shape my view of elementary number theory, most particularly Bela Bol-
lobas, Paul Erdős, D.H. Lehmer, James Maynard, Ken Ono, Paulo Ribenboim, Carl
Pomerance, John Selfridge, Dan Shanks and Hugh C. Williams. Several people have
shared insights or new works that have made their way into this book: Stephanie
Chan, Leo Goldmakher, Richard Hill, Alex Kontorovich, Jennifer Park and Richard
Pinch. The six anonymous reviewers added some missing perspectives and Olga
Balkanova, Patrick Da Silva, Mariah Hamel, Jorge Jimenez, Nikoleta Kalaydzhieva,
Youness Lamzouri, Jennifer Park, Sam Porritt, Ethan Smith, Anitha Srinivasan,
Paul Voutier, and particularly Tristan Freiberg and Max Wenqiang Xu kindly read
subsections of the near-final draft, making valuable comments.
Gauss’s “Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae”

In July 1801, Carl Friedrich Gauss published Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, a book

on number theory, written in Latin. It had taken five years to write, but was im-
mediately recognized as a great work, both for the new ideas and its accessible
presentation. Gauss was then widely considered to be the world’s leading mathe-
matician, and today we rate him as one of the three greatest in history, alongside
Archimedes and Sir Isaac Newton.
The first four chapters of Disquisitiones Arithmeticae consist of essentially the
same topics as our course today (with suitable modifications for advances made in
the last two hundred years). His presentation of ideas is largely the model upon
which modern mathematical writing is based. There follows several chapters on
quadratic forms, and then on the rudiments of what we would call Galois theory
today, most importantly the constructibility of regular polygons. Finally, the pub-
lisher felt that the book was long enough, and several further chapters did not
appear in the book (though Dedekind published Gauss’s disorganized notes, in
German, after Gauss’s death).
One cannot overestimate the importance of Disquisitiones to the development
of 19th century mathematics. It led, besides many other things, to Dirichlet’s
formulation of ideals (see sections ??, ?? of appendix 3D, ?? of Appendix 12B, and
?? of Appendix 12B), and the exploration of the geometry of the upper half plane
(see Theorem 1.2 and the subsequent discussion).
As a young man, Dirichlet took his copy of Disquisitiones with him wherever
he went. He even slept with it under his pillow. As an old man, it was his most
prized possession even though it was in tatters. It was translated into French in
1807, German in 1889, Russian in 1959, into English only in 1965, Spanish and
Japanese in 1995, and into Catalan in 1996!

ix
x Gauss’s “Disquisitiones Arithmeticae”

Disquisitiones is no longer read by many people. The notation is difficult. The

assumptions about what the reader knows does not fit today’s reader (for example,
neither linear algebra nor group theory had been formulated by the time Gauss
wrote his book, although Disquisitiones would provide some of the motivation for
developing those subjects). Yet, many of Gauss’s proofs are inspiring, and some
have been lost to today’s literature. Moreover, although the more advanced two-
thirds of Disquisitiones focus on binary quadratic forms, and have led to many
of today’s developments, there are several themes there that are not central to
today’s research. In the fourth book in our trilogy (!), we present a re-working of
Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, following his book and re-writing it in modern
notation, in a style more accessible to the modern reader. We also give the first
English version of the missing chapters, which include several surprises.
Notation

N – The natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Z – The integers, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Throughout all variables are taken to be integers, unless otherwise specified.
Usually p, and sometimes q, will denote prime numbers.
Q – The rational numbers, that is the fractions a/b with a ∈ Z and b ∈ N.
R – The real numbers
C – The complex numbers

X Y
summand and summand,
Some variables: Some variables:
Certain conditions hold Certain conditions hold

mean that we sum, or product, the summand over the integer values of some vari-
able, satisfying certain conditions.
Brackets and Parentheses: There are all sorts of brackets and parentheses in math-
ematics. It is helpful to have protocols with them that take on meaning, so we do
not have to repeat ourselves too often, as we will see in the notation below. But
we also use them in equations; usually we surround an expression with “(” and “)”
to be clear where the expression begins and ends. If too many of these are used
in one line then we might use different sizes, or even “{” and “}” instead. If the
brackets have a particular meaning then the reader will be expected to discern that
from the context.
A[x] — The set of polynomials with coefficients from the set A, that is f (x) =
Pd i
i=0 ai x where each ai ∈ A. Mostly we work with A = Z.
A(x) —The set of rational functions with coefficients from the set A. In other
words, functions f (x)/g(x) where f (x), g(x) ∈ A[x] and g(x) 6= 0.
[t] — The integer part of t. That is, the largest integer ≤ t.

xi
xii Notation

{t} — The fractional part of (real number) t. That is {t} = t − [t]. Notice that
0 ≤ {t} < 1.
(a, b) — The greatest common divisor of a and b.
[a, b] — The least common multiple of a and b.
b|a — means b divides a
pk ka — means pk divides a, but not pk+1 (where p is prime). In other words, k is
the “exact power” of p dividing a.
I(a, b) — The set {am + bn : m, n ∈ Z}, which is called the ideal generated by a
and b over Z.
log — is the logarithm in base e, the natural logarithm, which is often denoted by
“ln” in earlier courses.
Parity – The parity of an integer is either even (if it is divisible by 2), or odd (if it
is not divisible by 2).

The language of mathematics

“By a conjecture we mean a proposition that has not yet been proven but which is
favored by some serious evidence. It may be a significant amount of computational
evidence, or a body of theory and technique that has arisen in the attempt to settle
the conjecture.
An open question is a problem where the evidence is not very convincing one
way or the other.
A theorem, of course, is something that has been proved. There are important
theorems, and there are unimportant (but perhaps curious) theorems.
The distinction between open question and conjecture is, it is true, somewhat
subjective, and different mathematicians may form different judgements concerning
a particular problem. We trust that there will be no similar ambiguity concerning
the theorems.”
—— Dan Shanks [Sha, p.2]
Today we might add to this a heuristic argument, in which we explore an open
question with techniques that help give us a good idea of what to conjecture, even
if those techniques are unlikely to lead to a formal proof.
Prerequisites

The reader should be familiar with the commonly used sets of numbers N, Z and Q,
as well as polynomials with integer coefficients, denoted by Z[x]. Proofs will often
use the principle of induction; that is, if S(n) is a given mathematical assertion,
dependent on the integer n, then to prove that it is true for all n ∈ N, we need only
prove the following:
• S(1) is true
• S(k) is true implies that S(k + 1) is true, for all integers k ≥ 1.
The example that is usually given to highlight the principle of induction is the
statement “1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n = n(n+1)
2 ” which we denote by S(n).4 For n = 1 we
1·2
check that 1 = 2 and so S(1) is true. For any k ≥ 1, we assume that S(k) is true
and then deduce that

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1) as S(k) is true
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= ;
2
that is, S(k + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of induction, we deduce that S(n)
is true for all integers n ≥ 1.
To highlight the technique of induction with more examples, we develop the
theory of sums of powers of integers (for example, we prove a statement which gives
a formula for 12 + 22 + . . . + n2 for each integer n ≥ 1) in section 0.1, and give
formulas for the values of the terms of recurrence sequences (like the Fibonacci
numbers) in section 0.2.

4There are other, easier proofs of this assertion, but induction will be the only viable technique to
prove some of the more difficult theorems in the course, which is why we highlight the technique here.

xiii
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