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Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables
 POCKET GUIDES TO
SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH METHODS
Series Editor
Tony Tripodi, DSW
Professor Emeritus, Ohio State University
Determining Sample Size: The Dissertation:
Balancing Power, Precision, and Practicality From Beginning to End
Patrick Dattalo Peter Lyons and Howard J. Doueck
Preparing Research Articles Cross-Cultural Research
Bruce A. Thyer Jorge Delva, Paula Allen-Meares, and
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Sandra L. Momper
Julia H. Littell, Jacqueline Corcoran, and Secondary Data Analysis
Vijayan Pillai Thomas P. Vartanian
Historical Research Narrative Inquiry
Elizabeth Ann Danto Kathleen Wells
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Structural Equation Modeling
Donna Harrington Natasha K. Bowen and Shenyang Guo
Randomized Controlled Trials: Finding and Evaluating Evidence:
Design and Implementation for Systematic Reviews and
Community-Based Psychosocial Evidence-Based Practice
Interventions Denise E. Bronson and Tamara S. Davis
Phyllis Solomon, Mary M. Cavanaugh, Policy Creation and Evaluation:
and Jeffrey Draine Understanding Welfare Reform in the
Needs Assessment United States
David Royse, Michele Staton-Tindall, Richard Hoefer
Karen Badger, and J. Matthew Webster Grounded Theory
Multiple Regression with Discrete Julianne S. Oktay
Dependent Variables Systematic Synthesis of Qualitative
John G. Orme and Terri Combs-Orme Research
Developing Cross-Cultural Measurement Michael Saini and Aron Shlonsky
Thanh V. Tran Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
Intervention Research: Bruce A. Thyer
Developing Social Programs Conducting Research in Juvenile and
Mark W. Fraser, Jack M. Richman, Maeda J. Criminal Justice Settings
Galinsky, and Steven H. Day Michael G. Vaughn, Carrie Pettus-Davis,
Developing and Validating Rapid and Jeffrey J. Shook
Assessment Instruments Qualitative Methods for Practice
Neil Abell, David W. Springer, Research
and Akihito Kamata Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch,
Clinical Data-Mining: and Janet Hoy
Integrating Practice and Research Culturally Competent Research:
Irwin Epstein Using Ethnography as a Meta-Framework
Strategies to Approximate Random Mo Yee Lee and Amy Zaharlick
Sampling and Assignment Using Complexity Theory for Research and
Patrick Dattalo Program Evaluation
Analyzing Single System Design Data Michael Wolf-Branigin
William R. Nugent Analysis of Multiple Dependent
Survival Analysis Variables
Shenyang Guo Patrick Dattalo
 PATRICK DATTALO

Analysis of Multiple
Dependent Variables

1
 3
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dattalo, Patrick.
Analysis of multiple dependent variables / Patrick Dattalo.
p. cm.—(Pocket guides to social work research methods)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–977359–6 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Social service—Statistical methods. 2. Multivariate analysis.
I. Title.
HV29.D384 2013
519.5’35—dc23
2012029873

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
For Marie
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

1 Basic Concepts and Assumptions 1

2 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 22

3 Multivariate Analysis of Covariance 63

4 Multivariate Multiple Regression 87

5 Structural Equation Modeling 109

6 Choosing among Procedures for the Analysis

of Multiple Dependent Variables 149

References 157

Index 171

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables
This page intentionally left blank
 1

Basic Concepts and

Assumptions

INTRODUCTION
Multivariate procedures allow social workers and other human services
researchers to analyze multidimensional social problems and interven-
tions in ways that minimize oversimplification. The term multivariate
is used here to describe analyses in which several dependent variables
(DVs) are being analyzed simultaneously. The term univariate is used to
describe analyses in which one DV is being analyzed. DVs are also called
criterion, response, y-variables, and endogenous variables. Independent
variables (IVs) are also called predictor, explanatory, x-variables, and
exogenous variables. For consistency, only the terms independent and
dependent variables will be used here. Examples of multivariate analy-
ses include investigations of relationships between personality traits and
aspects of behavior, program characteristics and effectiveness, and client
characteristics and service needs. The purposes of multivariate analyses
include (1) data structure simplification and reduction, (2) description
of relationships, and (3) prediction.
Using multivariate analysis for data structure simplification and reduc-
tion involves identifying and interpreting concepts called latent variables,
or emergent variables. According to Huberty (1994), “what is being sought
is an attribute or trait that may not be directly observable, and is not

1
2 Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables

tangible; it is a latent variable often considered to comprise observable

variables that are in some way combined (usually in a linear manner)”
(p. 623).
Using multivariate analysis for description involves identifying and
specifying the relative importance of IVs to anticipate the values of DVs;
that is, description involves determining an ordering of IVs by answering
the question: How well does the estimated relationship between a set of
IVs and a set of DVs (i.e., a model) perform without each IV?
Using multivariate analysis for prediction involves identifying and
specifying one or more IVs that can help anticipate the values of DVs.
That is, the purpose of predictive analysis is to model the relationship
between one or more IVs and one or more DVs, and to use this model to
estimate values of the DVs when only values of the IVs are available.
Examples of multivariate statistical procedures to predict and describe
relationships include multivariate multiple regression (MMR), multi-
variate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and multivariate analysis of
covariance (MANCOVA). Structural equation modeling (SEM) may be
used for data simplification and reduction, description, and prediction.

RATIONALE FOR MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

When multiple DVs are being modeled, a researcher faces a choice among
whether to (1) analyze each DV separately; (2) aggregate the DVs before
analysis (e.g., compute standard scores for each DV and add the scores
of each DV to obtain a composite score for all DVs); or (3) perform a
multivariate analysis, such as MANOVA. One approach that can help to
clarify which of the aforementioned three choices is best is to examine
the correlations among DVs. Low correlations (Pearson’s r < .20) suggest
the need to analyze each DV separately; moderate correlations (r = .20 to
.50) suggest the need to analyze DVs together (i.e., a multivariate analy-
sis); and high positive correlations (r > .50) suggest the need to aggregate
the DVs before analysis (Stevens, 2009).
For example, MANOVA is conducted when the multiple DVs are
conceptually or statistically related. When the DVs represent different
dimensions of a multidimensional concept (e.g., clients satisfaction),
they are conceptually related. DVs are statistically correlated when a mea-
sure of association, such as Pearson’s, r, results . . . in a weak to moderate
 Basic Concepts and Assumptions 3

coefficient. Whether a researcher conducts a multivariate analysis or

multiple univariate analyses the intercorrelations among DVs should be
reported (Huberty & Morris, 1989; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
When there are moderate to low correlations among DVs, and a
researcher wishes to retain separate measures of these DVs, an additional
benefit is multiple operationalism. Operationalism refers to the process
of representing constructs by a specific set of steps or operations. In other
words, operationalism helps a researcher clarify the process of using
empirical data to measure a concept (i.e., an abstract idea or theoretical
construct), and to allow others to evaluate the validity of that measure-
ment process.
Multiple Operationalism. This term refers to the use of two or more
measures to represent a concept. From this perspective, the use of multi-
ple measures of a single concept provides a better chance of fully repre-
senting that concept. Campbell and Fiske (1959) explain that

“For any data taken from a single operation, there is a subinfinity of

interpretations possible; a subinfinity of concepts, or combinations of
concepts, that it could represent. Any single operation, as representative
of concepts, is equivocal.” (p. 101)

Boring (1953) stated, “ . . . as long as a new construct has only the sin-
gle operational definition that it received at birth, it is just a construct;
when it gets two alternative operational definitions, it is beginning to be
validated” (p. 183).
Multiple DVs may be suggested by theory, previously conducted
empirical investigations, or practice experience. Moreover, as Campbell
and Fiske (1959) have suggested, even if the primary interest is in only
one DV, multiple operationalization may provide a more valid assess-
ment of that DV. However, difficulty may arise in the interpretation of
relationships among multiple DVs if there is reason to suspect that these
variables are correlated. Consequently, the examination of correlations
among DVs may provide a greater understanding than can be attained by
considering these variables separately. The four multivariate procedures
discussed in this book facilitate the analysis of correlated DVs.
Control of Type I Error. A second reason to conduct a multivariate
analysis is to control type I error. Type I error is the probability of incor-
rectly identifying a statistically significant effect. Type I error is a false
4 Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables

positive, and is the process of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis

in favor of the alternative or research hypothesis. In an empirical inves-
tigation in which two or more comparisons are made from the data,
there are two kinds of type I error: (1) the comparison-wise error rate
is the probability of a type I error set by the researcher for evaluating
each comparison, and (2) the study-wise error rate (sometimes termed
experiment-wise error rate) is the probability of making at least one
type I error when performing a set of comparisons. The study-wise error
rate (SW) is defined as 1 − (1 − α)k, where α (alpha) is the significance
level used for each test and k is equal to the number of comparisons.
For example, if alpha is defined as p < 0.05, and tests are assumed to be
independent, then, for a model with five predictor variables, SW ≤ 1 −
(1 − 0.05)5, or 1 − 0.77 = 0.33. Therefore, whenever multiple inferential
statistical tests are performed, there is a potential problem of probability
pyramiding. Use of conventional levels of type I error probabilities for
each test in a series of statistical tests may yield an unacceptably high type
I error probability across all of the tests. If a researcher has a sound theo-
retical reason for performing sequential univariate or bivariate hypoth-
esis tests, then he or she might consider an adjustment to the overall type
I error probability. One approach is to use an additive inequality (i.e.,
Bonferroni). For m tests, the alpha level for each test (α1) is given by
the overall alpha level (αm) divided by m; this function of α1 should be
considered as an upper bound for the overall alpha, αm. Approaches to
controlling type I error are discussed further in chapter 2.
Multivariate statistical procedures, however, are not panaceas; there
are costs associated with their benefits. For, example, Bray and Maxwell
(1985) state,

. . . the indiscriminant use of multiple dependent measures is never an

appropriate substitute for a well-conceived study with a select number of
variables . . . In fact, the use of too many dependent variables may hinder
the chances of finding a significant result because of low statistical power
or it may result in spurious findings due to chance. (pp. 9–10)

Following Enders (2003), the perspective taken here is to strongly encour-

age researchers to “think carefully when thinking multivariately” (p. 53).
Accordingly, which procedure is most appropriate depends on the (1) pur-
pose of the analysis; (2) sample size; and (3) tenability of assumptions.
 Basic Concepts and Assumptions 5

These three issues will be discussed for MANOVA, MANCOVA, MMR,

and SEM, which will be presented as alternative statistical procedures for
analyzing models with more than one DV (see the chapter summaries
below).
The remaining portion of this chapter is organized as follows: (1)
audience and background; (2) level and type of examples; (3) defini-
tion of basic terms and concepts; (4) data assumptions; and (5) chapter
summaries.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Audience and Background
This book is intended primarily for producers and consumers of social
work research, although it is expected that it will also be useful to other
fields that use experiments and quasiexperiments, such as psychology,
education, evaluation, medicine, and other health-related disciplines.
Readers with a background in basic statistics are the primary audience.
Ideally, readers will have taken a graduate-level statistics course with
content that includes an introduction to ANOVA and regression model-
ing. However, each procedure will be presented here in sufficient detail
to enable readers to implement that procedure without supplemental
reading.

Level and Type of Examples

Discussion draws on the social work literature and on the literature from
a variety of related disciplines. Note that all data and related files are
posted on this book’s companion website. Detailed social work–related
examples are as follows:

1. Annotated examples of MANOVA and MANCOVA are provided

using PASW. Computer output is presented as well as an
explanation of how the output was produced. Instructions for
using Stata and SAS to conduct MANOVA and MANCOVA also
are provided;
2. An annotated example of MMR is provided using Stata.
Computer output is presented as well as an explanation of how
6 Analysis of Multiple Dependent Variables

the output was produced. Instructions for using PASW and SAS
to conduct MMR also are provided; and
3. An annotated example of SEM is provided using AMOS.
Computer output is presented as well as an explanation of how
the output was produced.

Assumptions
The term statistical model is used here to describe mathematical state-
ments about how variables are associated. Ideally, models are constructed
to capture a pattern of association suggested by a theory. Models are con-
structed and fitted to statistically test theories that purport to explain
relationships between and among variables. Statistical models include IVs
and DVs. Variables also may be described in terms of order. Higher-order
variables (e.g., interactions or moderators) are constructed from
lower-order variables (i.e., main effects).
Model building concerns strategies for selecting an optimal set of IVs
that explain the variance in one or more DVs (Schuster, 1998). A statisti-
cal model is said to be misspecified if it incorrectly includes unimportant
variables or excludes important variables (Babyak, 2004). Including more
variables than are needed is termed overfitting. Overfitting occurs when
a model contains too many IVs in relation to sample size, and when IVs
are intercorrelated. An overfitted model captures not only true regulari-
ties reflected in the data, but also chance patterns that reduce the model’s
predictive accuracy. Overfitting yields overly optimistic model results;
that is, findings that appear in an overfitted model may not exist in the
population from which a sample has been drawn. In contrast, underfit-
ting occurs when a model has too few IVs. Underfitting results in omis-
sion bias, and, consequently, may have poor predictive ability because of
the lack of detail in a regression model.
The simplest statistical model consists of IVs whose relationships
with a DV are separate, and, consequently, there is additivity, or no inter-
action. A more complicated model is when the effect of one IV (X1) on a
DV (Y) depends on another IV (X2). The relationship between X1 and X2
with Y is called a statistical interaction (or moderation). In a statistical
test of interaction, the researcher explores this interaction in the regres-
sion model by multiplying X1 by X2, which produces X1X2, which is called
 Basic Concepts and Assumptions 7

an interaction of moderator term. Conversely, additivity means that the

effect of one IV on the DV does not depend on the value of another IV.
In a subsequent discussion, data being analyzed are assumed to follow
the general linear model (GLM). One useful perspective on the GLM is
as an extension of linear multiple regression, sometimes termed ordinary
least squares regression. Multiple regression models a DV as a function
of a set of IVs. This model seeks to explain a proportion of the variance
in a DV at a statistically significant level, and can establish the relative
predictive importance of the IVs.
The multiple regression equation for sample estimates takes the form

y = b1x1 + b2x2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + bnxn + c (1.1)

The bi’s are the regression coefficients, representing the amount the DV
(y) changes when the IV (e.g., x1) changes one unit. The c is the constant,
or where the regression line intercepts the y-axis, and represents the value
of the DV(y) when all IVs equal zero.
Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression derives its name from the
method used to estimate the best-fit regression line: a line such that
the sum of the squared deviations of the distances of all the points from
the line is minimized. More specifically, the regression surface (i.e., a line
in simple regression, or a plane or higher-dimensional surface in mul-
tiple regression) expresses the best predicted value of the DV (Y), given
the values on the IVs (X’s). However, phenomena of interest to social
workers and other applied researchers are never perfectly predictable,
and usually there is variation between observed values of a DV and those
values predicted by OLS regression. The deviation of observed versus pre-
dicted values is called the residual value. Because the goal of regression
analysis is to fit a linear function of the X variables as closely as possible
to the observed Y variable, the residual values for the observed points can
be used to devise a criterion for the “best fit.” Specifically, in regression
problems, the linear function is computed for which the sum-of-squared
deviations of the observed points from values predicted by that func-
tion are minimized. Consequently, this general procedure is referred to
as least squares estimation. Power terms (e.g., x2, x3) can be added IVs to
explore curvilinear effects. Cross-product terms (e.g., x1x2) can be added
as IVs to explore interaction effects.
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