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FULTON'S
concrete technology

TENTH EDITION
FULTON'S CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Edited by
Mark Alexander

CEMENT & CONCRETE SA

Midrand, South Africa, 2021
 Copyright, 2021, Cement & Concrete SA
Midrand, South Africa

This publication may not be reproduced in whole

or in part without the written permission of
Cement & Concrete SA.

First edition 1957

Second edition 1961
Third edition 1964
Fourth edition 1969
Fifth edition 1977
Sixth edition 1986
Seventh edition 1994
Eighth edition 2001
Ninth edition 2009
Tenth edition 2021

ISBN 978-0-9922176-2-4

Cover design by DesignWright

Design, layout and production by DesignWright
Drawings by Christopher Eastman
Printing by The Bureau
Foreword and Acknowledgements

Cement & Concrete SA is proud to bring you this, the tenth edition of Fulton’s Concrete Technology. As with
previous editions of ‘Fulton’, this edition is commended to all practitioners, professionals and students, local
and international, as a serious reference for understanding and promoting modern concrete technology.

The book is published by the newly created organisation Cement & Concrete SA, which is a consolidation
of The Concrete Institute, the Concrete Society of Southern Africa, and the Association of Cementitious
Materials Producers. It is a body that represents the broader cement and concrete industries and will be the
voice of these industries in the future.

This edition of Fulton’s Concrete Technology has been a long time in the making and is the result of the hard
work of an enthusiastic and committed team.

My sincere thanks go to the Editor, Professor Mark Alexander for his dedication and exceptional contribution
in editing this tenth edition.

In addition, I would like to acknowledge, with much appreciation, the very substantial contributions made by:
• The authors for their respective chapters and for their patience with the many changes required in the
course of the editing, reviewing and checking.
• The expert reviewers who undertook the review of draft chapters, and whose incisive comments always
resulted in significant improvements.
• Gill Owens for her eagle-eyed proofreading that unearthed irregularities that had escaped all other
readers.
• Susan Battison who sourced, checked and standardised the very extensive reference lists and compiled
the index.
• Debi Leith from DesignWright, for her meticulous layout and attention to detail as well as her infinite
patience and good grace with incorporating even last-minute changes to the layout.
• Christopher Eastman who painstakingly redrew and captured all the drawings in electronic format.

The financial support of the following Cement companies for making the publishing of the tenth edition of
Fulton’s Concrete Technology a reality, is gratefully acknowledged.

AfriSam (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd

PPC Cement SA (Pty) Ltd
Dangote Cement South Africa (Pty) Ltd T/A Sephaku Cement
Lafarge Industries South Africa (Pty) Ltd

Bryan Perrie
CEO, Cement & Concrete SA
Preface

It is a rare privilege to edit an edition of Fulton's Concrete Technology, and ‘Fulton 10’ is no exception.

‘Fulton’ is firmly and pre-eminently established as the authoritative text on concrete materials and practice
in South Africa. This is a consequence of previous editions of the book, in which distinguished authors and
editors ensured that the contributions were always informative and abreast of developments in cement and
concrete materials science and technology. ‘Fulton’ has come to command great respect, not only in South
Africa, but internationally.

This edition of the book comes at a time of unprecedented change and challenge in the world, including
South Africa. Tremendous demands will be made of professionals in ensuing years, to address issues such
as sustainability of concrete construction, impact of climate change, population growth, and the like. What
remains constant is the need for authoritative, relevant, accurate and up-to-date information on concrete,
which remains the world's most used construction material. As in the past, this edition of ‘Fulton’ aims to
provide just that.

The Fulton tenth edition views concrete in the context of environmental sustainability, as an important
leitmotif, threaded throughout the book. The term ‘sustainability’ is taken to mean the ability to continue
to produce this fascinating material into the future, such that the needs of the population are met without
irreparably damaging the planet.

The opening chapter deals with this critical issue in an easy-to-read, informative style, and sets the context
for the entire book. Readers are strongly encouraged to read Chapter 1. This theme is extended throughout
the book, with selected chapters containing ‘Sustainability Focus’ highlights that address sustainability issues
pertinent to that particular chapter.

The first three editions (1957-1964) of the book were written by Dr Frederick Sandrock (‘Sandy’) Fulton as
sole or main author. He was then the Director of the forerunner of the Portland Cement Institute and its
latest incarnation, Cement & Concrete SA.

Later editions were multi-authored and more multi-faceted. This is appropriate, since concrete itself has,
over time, become a much more complex and multi-faceted material, and it is difficult for a single author to
engage in suitable depth with all aspects of the very wide scope of modern concrete technology. That the
largest section of the tenth edition (by number of chapters) is the one dealing with ‘Special concretes and
techniques’, illustrates this fact.

The authors of the different chapters were selected to offer a combination of experienced and ‘emerging’
professionals, drawn from a wide range of backgrounds: academics and researchers, concrete producers and
manufacturers, construction materials specialists, and consulting engineers.

The book represents a truly South African contribution to the science and practice of concrete technology,
notwithstanding some selected international contributions.
The book comprises 37 chapters and an Appendix, and is organised in the following sections:
Preview and context: Chapter 1
Section 1: Materials and mixes (Chapters 2-7)
Section 2: Concrete properties (Chapters 8-14)
Section 3: Concrete manufacture, site practices, quality control and
non-destructive testing (Chapters 15-24)
Section 4: Special concretes and techniques (Chapters 25-37)

This edition of the book contains substantial new material (including 10 new chapters) and represents a
significant update on the previous edition.

Fulton’s Concrete Technology aims to educate and guide concrete practitioners in the most effective use of
cement and concrete, so as to ensure that concrete construction in South Africa remains at a high level and
is able to meet the needs of the country and its development.

This book has been the essential reference in South African concrete technology for over six decades, and
has ensured that local practice remains at the forefront of international practice. That this should continue
into the future has been an important aim in preparing this edition.

This book is written as a snapshot in time, both in terms of sustainability and of the technical information
in the various chapters. Knowledge, understanding and practice will change, and the reader is urged to
continually keep abreast of the most current information.

Emeritus Professor Mark Alexander

Editor

May 2021
Authors' biographies

Mark Alexander PrEng PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng) FSAICE FSAAE Fellow RILEM, MASSAf MICT
Mark is Emeritus Professor of Civil Engineering and a Senior Research Scholar in the University of Cape
Town. His teaching and research interests are in cement and concrete materials, relating to concrete design
and construction. He publishes in South Africa and abroad and is active in international scientific circles.
He acts as a specialist consultant to industry and the profession on concrete materials problems.
E-mail: [email protected]

Philemon Abuti Arito PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng)

Philemon studied civil engineering at the University of Nairobi (UoN) in Kenya and the University of Cape
Town (UCT) in South Africa. He is currently employed as a senior lecturer at the University of Namibia (UNAM)
where he teaches the design of reinforced and prestressed concrete structural elements, advanced structural
design, strength of materials, concrete technology, and general construction materials. His teaching and
research interests are in cement and concrete materials, particularly relating to concrete durability, repair,
condition assessment, deterioration modelling, the use of recycled waste products, admixtures, and novel
materials in concrete production.
E-mail: [email protected]

Yunus Ballim PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng) FSAAE FSAICE MASSAf

Yunus holds BSc, MSc and PhD degrees in civil engineering from the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits).
After six years in the construction and precast concrete industries, he was awarded the Portland Cement
Institute Research Fellowship in 1989, and he currently holds a personal professorship at Wits. He has served
as the Head of the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering (2001 to 2005) and Deputy Vice Chancellor:
Academic (2006 to 2012) at Wits. Between 2013 and 2020, he served as the founding Vice-Chancellor of
the new Sol Plaatje University in Kimberley. He is also a Senior Member of RILEM.
E-mail: [email protected]

Hans Beushausen PhD MSc(Eng) Dipl-Ing(HAW, Germany)

Hans is Professor of Structural and Materials Engineering at the University of Cape Town. After completing
his first degree in Structural Engineering in Hamburg, Germany, he obtained his MSc(Eng) (2000) and
PhD (2005) from UCT and made South Africa his home. His research interests concern advanced concrete
technology, assessment and repair of concrete structures, durability design and service life modelling,
recycled aggregate concrete, and concrete with low clinker contents for improved sustainability. He manages
the concrete laboratory at UCT and acts as industry consultant on all aspects related to concrete technology
and associated forensic engineering.
E-mail: [email protected]

Raymond Bonser HND Civil Engineering (Wits Technikon) Dip ACT

Ray has a Higher National Diploma in Civil Engineering from Wits Technikon and an Advanced Concrete
Technology Diploma (ACT) from the Institute of Concrete Technology (ICT) in the UK. He has worked in a
technical capacity in the cement division of Blue Circle Cement (Lafarge), and the ready-mix concrete and
aggregate divisions of AfriSam in South Africa. He currently resides in Auckland, New Zealand, where he is
employed as the national technical materials engineer for Firth Industries’ ready-mix concrete division.
E-mail: [email protected]
Billy Boshoff PrEng PhD, BEng(Civil)
Billy is a Professor in Civil Engineering at the University of Pretoria. His field of interest is concrete with a focus
on advanced cement-based materials, and he has authored more than 100 publications in this field. He has
active collaborations both locally and internationally and is a senior member of RILEM.
E-mail: [email protected]

Brenton Brouard T4 Civil Engineering

Brenton's career roles have varied from student civil engineering technician at Grinaker (Zululand), to quality
control manager/technical services manager/quality assurance manager and refractory sales manager at
Fondarge (subsequently Lafarge Aluminates), provincial sales manager for Lafarge Southern Africa, and
technical manager concrete at Chryso Southern Africa. His focus has been on all aspects of calcium aluminate
cement. He lectured on CAC and refractory concrete for several years in the Advanced Concrete Technology
(ACT) course offered by the erstwhile Concrete Institute’s School of Concrete Technology. Over the last
decade or so, his focus has been on all aspects of Portland cement-based concrete mix designs, incorporating
the use of admixtures, encompassing standard, pumpable and self-compacting concrete (SCC). He has a
particular interest in the design of SCCs, bricklaying mortars and plasters.
E-mail: [email protected]

Sebastian Burwitz BSc(Eng) (Civil)

Sebastian started in the South African construction industry in 2013 as a site engineer for Stefanutti
Stocks on commercial high-rise projects. In the latter part of 2014, he joined PERI South Africa as a design
engineer specialising in technical and solution-driven designs for Key Projects, but also providing training on
application design and products provided by PERI South Africa, to contractors and students at workshops.
His early career included brief work spells in Qatar and Germany, followed by a longer-term move to the
United States in 2018 with PERI USA. Sebastian’s international experience and large project exposure enables
him to mentor and guide his team of engineers in formwork design and application engineering across the
infrastructure and industrial sector.
E-mail: [email protected]

Vernon Collis PrEng PrArch BSc(Eng) FSAAE

Vernon is a consulting engineer and architect specialising in integrated and adaptive sustainable systems
design and construction in the building and civil engineering industries. He is also an adjunct associate
professor at the University of Cape Town. His research interests include sustainable construction materials
with a focus on concrete materials, and the integration of sustainability design into the teaching and
professional practice of civil engineering and architecture.
E-mail: [email protected]

Riaan Combrinck PhD MSc(Eng) BEng

Riaan is a senior lecturer in the Civil Engineering Department at Stellenbosch University. His teaching and
research interests are construction materials with a special interest in cement and concrete. He has published
internationally and in South Africa and leads the Unit of Construction Materials (UCM) within the Structures
Division at Stellenbosch University. The UCM supports several postgraduate students and research projects,
and provides specialist consulting services to industry, especially related to testing and development of
construction materials.
E-mail: [email protected]
Brian Cook NDT (Civil Engineering)
After being recruited as a student in 1980 by Candac Construction (which subsequently became Murray &
Roberts (Civils)), Brian began his career working in the marine construction environment where most precast
items were cast on site. Resulting from this career start, he developed a special interest in the precast and
high-durability concrete fields. After leaving the contracting environment, he moved to a company supplying
light precast products ranging from blocks, bricks, kerbs, decking systems and concrete retaining blocks.
A further move saw him enter the field of heavy precast which included standard products such as pipes,
culverts, jacking pipes and road barriers. This period also included custom-made precast as well as solutions-
driven precast where the solution was determined by extensive consultations between the engineer,
contractor, and the precast manufacturer. On some export contracts, complete jetties were manufactured
and packaged according to the limitations of the shipping and handling on site. A highlight in his career of
just under forty years, was the manufacture of the first precast concrete wind tower in South Africa.
E-mail: [email protected]

Steve Crosswell PrEng GDE BSc(Eng) MSAICE MICT

Steve graduated in 1975 from the University of Cape Town and then gained experience in road design
and construction. He joined the then C&CI as regional engineer, later becoming regional manager for the
Western Cape. In 1996 he joined PPC Cement as technical support manager for the Western Cape. For the
University of Cape Town, he has acted as honorary lecturer in the Department of Materials Engineering and
as guest lecturer and external examiner in the Department of Civil Engineering.
E-mail: [email protected]

Frank Dehn Univ. Prof Dr.-Ing.

Frank is Professor of Building Materials and Concrete Construction at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
(KIT), Germany, and director of the Materials Research and Testing Institute (MPA Karlsruhe). He is Presidium
member and co-chair of the Technical Council of the International Federation of Structural Concrete (fib)
and serves as associate editor-in chief of Structural Concrete – the fib Journal. Additionally, Frank contributes
intensively to national and international pre-normative technical bodies and standardisation and expert
committees such as RILEM, CEN, DIN and DIBt.
E-mail: [email protected]

Grizelda du Toit PhD(Chem) MSc(Chem) BHon(Chem) BSc(Chem & Maths)

Grizelda works as a project professional at AfriSam (Pty) Ltd. Her working experience includes product
development and research projects relating to cement, alternative raw materials and construction chemicals,
technical customer support and training, as well as laboratory and systems management. Her expertise lies
in the field of cement chemistry, and her work on hybrid fly ash cement has been published internationally.
E-mail: [email protected]

George Evans MICT

George is a concrete technologist providing specialist services to the construction and associated industries.
He has gained extensive practical knowledge from his involvement in numerous construction projects locally,
and in more than 17 countries around the world. His passion is to improve the quality of workmanship in the
construction industry by transferring his knowledge of materials, production, handling and the application
of concrete and other cementitious-based products.
E-mail: [email protected]
Darren Jacobs National Diploma, Civil Engineering Dip ACT
Darren has completed an Advanced Concrete Technology Diploma (ACT) from the UK’s Institute of Concrete
Technology (ICT) and been involved in technical support within the ready-mix concrete industry since 2001.
He is currently a regional technical manager at Lafarge South Africa, with a special focus on the development
of Lafarge's non-standard ready-mix concrete products.
E-mail: [email protected]

Roelof Jacobs PrTechEng MSc(Eng) BTech MICT

Roelof joined Lafarge in 2006 after completing his initial studies at the Central University of Technology,
Bloemfontein (CUT). Further studies included an Advanced Concrete Technology Diploma (ACT) from the
UK Institute of Concrete Technology (ICT) and an MSc(Eng) from Queen’s University. He is an active member
of international and local industry associations and bodies. In his career, he has been responsible for various
portfolios in RMC, aggregates, cement and fly ash. His passion has always been concrete materials in
various applications. His roles have covered QC/QA, technical sales, technical support, and innovation on
various product lines. In his current role, he oversees Technical Sales and Innovation for Lafarge Cement and
Ash Resources.
E-mail: [email protected]

Elsabe Kearsley PrEng PhD MEng(Civil) BEng(Civil) FSAICE FSAAE

Elsabe is Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Pretoria. Her teaching and research interests
are in cement and concrete materials and structures, with specific focus on reducing the environmental
impact of the construction industry. She has published widely both in South Africa and abroad. She acts as
a specialist consultant on not only measuring cement and concrete materials properties, but also monitoring
the behaviour of concrete structures.
E-mail: [email protected]

Moses Wopicho Kiliswa PhD MSc BTech (Hons)(Civil), PEng MEngNZ

Moses is an experienced forensic structural engineer and concrete materials scientist. He is currently based
at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, where he teaches courses in structural engineering and
materials. His research interests are in cement and concrete technology, focussing on durability in aggressive
environments and also on alternative materials. He is active in both local and international scientific circles
where he publishes and presents in conferences and seminars. Moses is a licensed professional engineer
(Kenya) and acts as a specialist consultant to the construction industry in various parts of the world.
E-mail: [email protected]

Wynand Louw PrEng MEng BEng(Civil)

Wynand is the founder and CEO of W Louw and Associates Specialist Consultants, working in the field of
the rehabilitation of structures. His expertise includes concrete diagnostics, specifications for remedial work,
and supervision of the execution of remedial projects. He has worked internationally, including in Das Island
UAE, a brewery in Ethiopia, rehabilitation of a jetty in Dar es Salaam and silos in Port Louis, Mauritius. He has
also been involved in projects in most other SADC countries.
E-mail: [email protected]
James Mackechnie CPEng PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng)
James is the education, training and development manager for Concrete New Zealand and is based in
Christchurch, NZ. He is also an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Canterbury and past president
of the Learned Society of Concrete New Zealand. He has thirty years of experience in concrete materials
research and development working in academia, consulting, and construction both in New Zealand and in
South Africa. His research expertise is in concrete durability and supplementary cementitious materials.
E-mail: [email protected]

Hylton Macdonald PrEng CEng IngPEur PhD BSc(Eng) AMP(HBS) FSAICE FICE FSAAE FAArb MDRBF
MSPE, MCSSA
Hylton graduated in 1976 from the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), and commenced research for his
PhD thesis The Properties of Concrete in Uniaxial Tension in 1977. He joined a contracting company in 1980
and completed his PhD on a part-time basis, which was awarded in 1982. He has been involved in numerous
design-and-build and build-only projects, for a wide range and variety of concrete structures. He was actively
involved in the testing, use and development of special concretes in undertaking these projects. Hylton has
actively supported research into the creep and durability properties of concrete and has given presentations
and lectured on concrete and concrete structures at various venues both locally and internationally. From
2014, Hylton has been an independent consulting engineer and provides advice and input in the industry in
several key areas, which include advice on concrete, and concrete related problems.
E-mail: [email protected]

Mike McDonald BSc Hons(Chemistry) MBA

Mike heads up AfriSam’s (South Africa) Centre of Product Excellence. His responsibilities include customer
support, product development and product portfolio management within the AfriSam group. He graduated
with a BSc Hons (Chemistry) from the University of Johannesburg (RAU) and completed an MBA through
the University of North West. He has gained extensive experience in cement process quality assurance and
process management during his career. He serves on a number of SABS and industry committees.
E-mail: [email protected]

Carl (Callie) Middel National Diploma Building, CSP3(SAFCEC)

After approximately 10 years in civil contracting as junior foreman and then as site agent, Callie moved his
focus to formwork. In 2004 he joined Peri Formwork, in part out of curiosity relating to the new formwork
systems which were entering the South African construction industry from Germany, since they were
redefining methods of construction. Formwork cost estimating and technical support have been a major
part of his work. He currently works for Peri Formwork USA in the Chicago office, supporting concept bids
for post-tensioned parking structures as well as civil infrastructure projects.
E-mail: [email protected]

Pilate Moyo PrEng PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng) FSAICE FSAAE MIABSE MISHMII
Pilate is a Professor of Structural Engineering at the University of Cape Town. His research is focused on
the development and deployment of intelligent structural health monitoring and structural assessment
technologies. His approach integrates finite element modelling, a range of full-scale field measurements
including full-scale vibration testing and non-destructive testing, and advanced data analysis algorithms.
He is regularly consulted by industry both locally and internationally on structural integrity evaluation of
infrastructure. He has published widely in these areas.
E-mail: [email protected]
Mike Otieno PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Civil Eng) PGDipEd (HE) AMSAICE
Mike is an associate professor of civil engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. His
teaching covers both undergraduate and postgraduate courses in construction materials, including strength
and mechanics of materials. His research interests include concrete durability, service life prediction, steel
corrosion in reinforced concrete structures and repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures. He also acts
as a consultant to industry on concrete materials problems.
E-mail: [email protected]

Bryan Perrie PrEng MSc(Eng) BSc(Eng) FSAAE MICT

Bryan graduated with a civil engineering degree from the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) in 1977 and
then gained experience in civil contracting in southern Africa. He was with the Cement and Concrete Institute
(previously the Portland Cement Institute), for 29 years, the last five years as managing director. Following
the demise of the C&CI in 2013, he was involved with the creation of The Concrete Institute where he was
the managing director. In 2021, he was appointed the CEO of the newly-formed Cement & Concrete SA.

Bryan specialises in concrete roads and floors and has authored a number of publications, including
Low-volume concrete roads, Concrete Intersections, Concrete industrial floors on the ground (with Louis
Marais), and Concrete Roads Construction Manual (with Dennis Rossmann). He has authored a large number
of papers for publication and presentation at local and overseas seminars, conferences and symposia. He is a
past Board member of the Concrete Society of Southern Africa, past president of the Southern Africa Road
Federation, and past Vice President of the International Society for Concrete Pavements. Bryan chairs the
South African Bureau of Standards Sub-Committee for Cement, Concrete and Concrete products.

In 2021 Bryan was made an Honorary Member of the International Society for Concrete Pavements in
acknowledgement of his outstanding contribution to progressing the use of concrete in pavement
construction. He is one of only 25 other people to have been thus honoured.
E-mail: [email protected]

Roderick Rankine PrEng PhD MSc(Eng) BSc(Building) Dip ACT MSAICE Certified Infrared Thermographer
(ITC Stockholm, Sweden)
Rod is a specialist in the field of construction materials and the science of building. His company, Rod Rankine
Engineering Solutions cc, conducts condition assessments of structures (including concrete industrial ground
slabs and hardstandings), forensic investigations on failures, assists in the development of construction
specifications and solutions to construction problems and provides training to personnel who will be
responsible for executing important work. He is an author or co-author of more than 40 papers published in
accredited journals of science and engineering, international conference proceedings and books.
E-mail: [email protected]

Jason Roberts BTech(Eng)

Jason has worked for several years as a concrete technologist in the precast industry, training others on
the various principles of concrete, researching and implementing innovative technologies and providing
technical support to solve customer problems. He has served on various concrete and aggregate standards
committees and has spent “a lot of time playing with concrete”. Today he works abroad for a sustainability
and innovation team where he spends most of his time reimagining current construction practices in order
to lead the concrete industry into a more sustainable future.
E-mail: [email protected]
John Roxburgh BSc(Building) MICT
Before joining The Cement and Concrete Institute in 2009, John worked in the construction industry for
LTA, and for a brick and block machine manufacturer, in which capacity he travelled extensively throughout
Africa as a technical advisor and trainer. Since 2009, John has worked in the School of Concrete Technology
as a lecturer.
E-mail: [email protected]

Quentin Shaw CEng PrEng PhD MSc BSc(Hons) FICE FSAAE

Quentin is a consulting dam engineer specialising in the design, materials, and construction of concrete and
roller-compacted concrete (RCC) dams. He is currently serving his second term as Chairman of SANCOLD, he
is Vice-Chairman of ICOLD’s Committee on Concrete Dams and was the lead author for ICOLD Bulletin 177
on RCC dams. Quentin has, to date, worked on more than 150 dams in 33 countries, the highest being the
275-m Yusufeli double-curvature concrete arch dam completed in Turkey in 2021, for which he was the chief
design engineer. He has published extensively and received the ICOLD Innovation Award in July 2018 for his
ground-breaking work on the early thermo-mechanical behaviour of RCC in large dams.
E-mail: [email protected]

Clive Sofianos MICT

Clive is the owner of an independent concrete laboratory specialising in all aspects of concrete mix designs,
consulting, and training. He has been extensively involved in major projects throughout Africa, working with
local and international contractors. He was involved in a number of prominent projects such as Katse dam,
Alusaf and Mozal smelters, Coega harbour, and Kusile power station as well as a number of wind farm
projects.
E-mail: [email protected]

Peter Taylor PhD BSc(Eng) PE(IL) FACI

Peter is the Director of the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center at Iowa State University where
he works on researching and implementing best practices for specifying, building, and maintaining concrete
pavements in the USA and around the world. His experience includes working for the Construction
Technology Laboratories (CTL) Group in Chicago and the then Portland Cement Institute (PCI) in Midrand.
His research interests are focused on developing methods to prepare mixture proportions that deliver required
performance in a range of applications, as well as refining test methods and specifications to confirm that
every load of concrete will perform as required. He is engaged in committees at ACI, ASTM, TRB, ISCP and
RILEM.
E-mail: [email protected]
Kyriakos (Gary) Andreas Theodosiou PrEng BSc(Eng) GDE MICT
Gary graduated from the University of the Witwatersrand in 1978 and has 17 years’ experience in structural
concrete, steel, and timber design. During this time, he worked for Keeve Steyn & Partners (later known
as Goba and subsequently Hatch), LSL Incorporated (a company that specialises in materials handling),
BKS incorporated (later known as AECOM) and Anglo American. He has been involved in several major
reinforced/prestressed concrete and structural steel projects including Soccer City, the Chamber of Mines
Engineering Building at Wits University, Vaal Triangle Technikon, precooling towers and reservoir for Vaal
Reefs 10 shaft, Sadiola Gold Mine in Mali and TR5 Transfer house for the Taiwan Power Company.

Gary joined the Cement and Concrete Institute in December 1995. He worked in the technical department,
the School of Concrete Technology and headed the structural marketing focus department until C&CI closed
in April 2013. He is presently with the newly formed organisation, Cement & Concrete SA. His responsibilities
are to provide concrete technology training, reviewing and updating standards, specifications and codes of
practice, and providing technical consulting support to the construction Industry.
E-mail: [email protected]

Daniel van der Merwe PrArch BArch MSACAP

Daniel is a practising architect. He was a senior lecturer at the University of Johannesburg, and worked at
the Cement and Concrete Institute between 2008 and 2013, heading the architectural concrete focus area.
During this tenure he wrote and designed a 125-page publication Guide to Achieving Architectural Concrete
Finishes, a first-of-its-kind for the industry. Daniel joined PPC Ltd in May 2013, where he founded – and was
the director – of the PPC Imaginarium platform until its termination in 2019. He initiated the Architecture ZA
platform in 2010 and has acted as the Convener of the SAIA AZA conferences since. He served on the SAIA
Board, and is a past President of the Gauteng Institute for Architecture.
E-mail: [email protected]

Hennie van Heerden MICT

Hennie was technical manager for Sephaku Cement after spending several years as a contractor in the field
of sprayed concrete where he gained experience on a number of major contracts including the Drakensberg
Pumped Storage scheme, the Mediterranean Dead Sea project in Israel, as well as on the Gautrain project.
He also has extensive experience in cement production and testing and also in the applications of cement
and concrete. He has gained extensive knowledge in the field of admixture technology while employed
at Chryso Southern Africa and Lafarge Cement, respectively. In 1998 he obtained his Advanced Concrete
Technology Diploma (ACT) from the Institute of Concrete Technology (ICT) in the UK.
E-mail: [email protected]

Gideon van Zijl PrEng DEng PhD MEng BEng FSAICE FSAAE
Gideon is Distinguished Professor of Civil and Structural Engineering at Stellenbosch University. His teaching
and research interests are in concrete materials and structures, relating to computational and structural
mechanics, durability, and digital construction. He has published extensively nationally and internationally
and leads a team in the development of sustainable infrastructure at Stellenbosch University.
E-mail: [email protected]
Editorial policy

Authors of the chapters in this book were selected for their expertise and experience in the particular topics
handled in their chapters.

All chapters were subjected to a rigorous process of editing, and were also sent for independent peer review
by leading experts in the specific topic. This invaluable assistance, which has greatly enhanced the quality of
the book, is gratefully acknowledged.

Reviewers
Yunus Ballim Chris Harris Mike Otieno
Matthew Barker Roelof Jacobs Bryan Perrie
Hans Beushausen Elsabe Kearsley Rod Rankine
Billy Boshoff Deon Kruger Dennis Rossmann
Adrian Campbell Hylton Macdonald Manu Santhanam
Vernon Collis James Mackechnie Gary Theodosiou
Steve Crosswell Mike McDonald Richard Tomes
Grizelda du Toit Rajen Naidoo Gideon van Zijl
George Evans Gill Owens
Contents

PREVIEW AND CONTEXT: CONCRETE SUSTAINABILITY

CHAPTER 1
The history and environmental sustainability of concrete
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Concrete in a time of global challenge.......................................................................................... 4
1.3 A history of concrete and mortar................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Limestone and carbon capture............................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Lime binders from limestone.................................................................................. 8
1.3.3 Gypsum binders................................................................................................... 10
1.3.4 Rome and natural pozzolans................................................................................ 10
1.3.5 How pozzolans form and work............................................................................. 10
1.3.6 The Pantheon....................................................................................................... 11
1.3.7 John Smeaton’s pozzolan deductions.................................................................... 12
1.3.8 James Parker and Natural Cement........................................................................ 12
1.3.9 Brunel’s use of Natural cement mortar.................................................................. 12
1.3.10 James Frost and the first horizontal kiln................................................................ 13
1.3.11 Belite.................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 The origins of Portland cement.................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 The rotating horizontal kiln and alite.................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Alite..................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.3 Setting and hardening of concrete....................................................................... 14
1.5 Portland cement in South Africa.................................................................................................. 15
1.6 Reinforced concrete.................................................................................................................... 15
1.7 Durability and lifespan................................................................................................................. 17
1.8 Reducing the carbon footprint of cement – the role of manufacturers......................................... 17
1.8.1 Mining and production of raw feed...................................................................... 18
1.8.2 Improving kiln efficiencies.................................................................................... 19
1.8.3 Solar energy and carbon capture.......................................................................... 19
1.8.4 Belite clinkers and limestone substitution.............................................................. 20
1.8.5 Substituting Portland cement clinker with industrial by-products.......................... 21
1.8.6 Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3)................................................................. 21
1.8.7 Appreciating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
in the bigger context............................................................................................ 22
1.9 Reducing demand for concrete and mortar................................................................................. 23
1.9.1 From client brief to concrete specification, production and construction............... 23
1.9.2. Construction with concrete and mortar................................................................ 25
1.9.3 Production of mortar and concrete....................................................................... 26
1.9.4 Optimised low-CO2 mix design............................................................................. 26
1.9.5 Getting the mix right............................................................................................ 27
1.10 Recycled aggregates and CO2 emissions...................................................................................... 29
1.10.1 Recycling Construction and Demolition (C&D) materials to make aggregates........ 29
1.10.2 Coarse aggregates from C&D............................................................................... 30
1.10.3 Recycled and site-derived fine aggregates............................................................. 30
1.11 Design and construction of concrete structures........................................................................... 30
1.12 Towards performance-based specifications and regulations......................................................... 32
1.13 The importance of research and development............................................................................. 33
1.14 Rethinking engineering education for the 21st Century............................................................... 33
1.15 Collaboration for a better future................................................................................................. 34
1.16 Closure....................................................................................................................................... 34

SECTION 1: M
​ ATERIALS AND MIXES

CHAPTER 2
Cementitious materials
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 41
2.1.1 Manufacture of Portland cement.......................................................................... 41
2.2 Composition of Portland cement................................................................................................. 45
2.2.1 Clinker production parameters............................................................................. 46
2.2.2 Sources of the main constituents required for the production of cement.............. 47
2.3 Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)............................................................................. 48
2.3.1 Fly ash (FA) for use in concrete, to SANS 50450-1:2014........................................ 49
2.3.2 Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) for use in concrete,
mortar and grouts, to SANS 55167-1:2011.......................................................... 50
2.3.3 Condensed silica fume (CSF) for use in concrete, to SANS 53263-1:2011............. 51
2.3.4 Metakaolin (MK) for use in concrete..................................................................... 52
2.3.5 Naturally occurring SCMs and filler materials........................................................ 52
2.4 Hydration of cementitious materials............................................................................................ 54
2.4.1 Hydration of Portland cement............................................................................... 54
2.4.2 Hydration of the silicates...................................................................................... 56
2.4.3 Hydration of the aluminates (and ferrites)............................................................. 57
2.4.4 Setting time, flash and false set............................................................................ 58
2.4.5 Volumetric aspects of cement microstructure and hydration................................. 58
2.4.6 Summary – Portland cement paste in the fresh and hardened states..................... 59
2.4.7 Hydration of common SCMs................................................................................ 60
2.5 Water:cement (or water:binder) ratio and strength...................................................................... 60
2.6 Paste-aggregate interface – Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)......................................................... 62
2.7 Common cements, to SANS 50197-1:2013................................................................................. 62
2.7.1 Composition........................................................................................................ 62
2.7.2 Mechanical requirements..................................................................................... 62
2.7.3 Physical requirements........................................................................................... 64
2.7.4 Chemical requirements......................................................................................... 64
2.7.5 Statistical conformity............................................................................................ 65
2.8 Additional classification of common cements.............................................................................. 65
2.8.1 Sulfate resisting (SR) cement, to SANS 50197-1:2013........................................... 65
2.8.2 Low Heat (LH) cement, to SANS 50197-1:2013.................................................... 66
2.8.3 Masonry cement (MC), to SANS 50413-1:2014.................................................... 66
2.8.4 White cement...................................................................................................... 67
2.9 Packing, storage and handling.................................................................................................... 67
2.9.1 Bagged cement.................................................................................................... 68
2.9.2 Bulk cement......................................................................................................... 68
Appendix: Volumetric ratios of cement paste at normal temperatures.................................................... 72
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