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JOHN COTTINGHAM

WESTERN
PH LOSOPHY
I

AN ANTHOLOGY

M Blackwell
Publishing
Western Philosophy
BLACKWELL PHILOSOPHY ANTHOLOGIES

Each volume in this outstanding series provides an authoritative and comprehensive collection of
the essential primary readings from philosophy’s main fields of study. Designed to complement the
Blackwell Companions to Philosophy series, each volume represents an unparalleled resource in its

own right, and will provide the ideal platform for course use.

1 Cottingham: Western Philosophy: An Anthology (second edition)

2 Cahoone: From Modernism to Postmodernism: An Anthology (expanded second edition)

3 LaFollette: Ethics in Practice: An Anthology (third edition)

4 Goodin and Pettit: Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology (second edition)
5 Eze: African Philosophy: An Anthology
6 McNeill and Feldman: Continental Philosophy: An Anthology
7 Kim and Sosa: Metaphysics: An Anthology
8 Lycan and Prinz: Mind and Cognition: An Anthology (third edition)

9 Kuhse and Singer: Bioethics: An Anthology (second edition)

10 Cummins and Cummins: Minds, Brains, and Computers - The Foundations of Cognitive Science:
An Anthology
11 Sosa, Kim, Fantl, and McGrath: Epistemology: An Anthology (second edition)

12 Kearney and Rasmussen: Continental Aesthetics - Romanticism to Postmodernism: An Anthology

13 Martinich and Sosa: Analytic Philosophy: An Anthology
14 facquette: Philosophy of Logic: An Anthology
15 Jacquette: Philosophy of Mathematics: An Anthology
16 Harris, Pratt, and Waters: American An Anthology
Philosophies:

17 Emmanuel and Goold: Modern - From Descartes to Nietzsche: An Anthology

Philosophy
18 Scharff and Dusek: Philosophy of Technology - The Technological Condition: An Anthology
19 Light and Rolston: Environmental Ethics: An Anthology
20 Taliaferro and Griffiths: Philosophy of Religion: An Anthology

21 Lamarque and Olsen: Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art - The Analytic Tradition: An Anthology
22 John and Lopes: Philosophy of Literature - Contemporary and Classic Readings: An Anthology
23 Cudd and Andreasen: Feminist Theory: A Philosophical Anthology
24 Carroll and Choi: Philosophy of Film and Motion Pictures: An Anthology

25 Lange: Philosophy of Science: An Anthology

26 Shafer-Landau and Cuneo: Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology
27 Curren: Philosophy of Education: An Anthology
28 Shafer-Landau: Ethical Theory: An Anthology
29 Cahn and Meskin: Aesthetics: A Comprehensive Anthology
Western Philosophy
An Anthology

Second edition

Edited by
John Cottingham

Blackwell
Publishing
 Editorial material and organization © 1996, 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

BLACKWELL PUBLISHING
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1 2008

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Western philosophy : an anthology / edited by John Cottingham. - 2nd ed.

p. cm. - (Blackwell philosophy anthologies)

Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-2477-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) - ISBN 978-1-4051-2478-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Philosophy-Introductions. I. Cottingham, John, 1943-
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 John Cottingham’s
Western Philosophy: An Anthology
Praise for the first edition

‘It is difficult to imagine how this volume could be improved upon as the very best historically based
anthology of the essential philosophical writings. Cottingham’s commentary and introductions are
extremely clear and helpful. It will provide an ideal text for an excellent introductory course in
philosophy’. Christopher Hookway, University of Sheffield

‘This volume is a superb resource for beginning students and their teachers. Not only is it an
excellent anthology - a comprehensive, well-chosen, well-edited collection of classic texts, from
Plato to Sartre, Aristotle to Rawls - it is also a perspicuous systematic presentation of the subject,

owing to the editor’s skilful provision of introductory material and notes. Judiciously annotated lists

of supplementary readings further enhance the value of this outstanding volume.’ Vere Chappell,
University of Massachusetts

‘In this anthology the highly respected philosopher John Cottingham has assembled 100 classic

selections from Plato to Parfit. Done with care and considerable expertise the result is arguably the
best single-volume introduction to the writings of Western philosophy.’ John Haldane, University
of St Andrews

‘A truly outstanding collection. An excellent course book which doubles as a solid reference volume.
The clarity of the commentary makes these classic readings vivid and accessible to students.’
George Graham, University of Alabama

‘By providing the means to appreciate philosophy as the great historical odyssey of the human
intellect, this ambitious anthology makes philosophy come alive for students and general readers
alike.’ David Cooper, University of Durham
 For JCC and family,
and In Memoriam VXG
 1

Contents

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xxii

Advice to Readers and Format of the Volume xxx

Part I Knowledge and Certainty 1

1 Innate Knowledge
Plato, Meno 3

2 Knowledge versus Opinion

Plato, Republic 12

3 Demonstrative Knowledge and its Starting-points

10
Aristotle, Posterior Analytics 18

4 New Foundations for Knowledge

Rene Descartes, Meditations 21

5 The Senses as the Basis of Knowledge

John Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding 25

6 Innate Knowledge Defended

Gottfried Leibniz, New Essays on Human Understanding 3

7 Human Nature
Scepticism versus
David Hume, Enquiry concerning Human Understanding 35

8 Experience and Understanding

Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason 40

9 From Sense-certainty to Self-consciousness

Georg Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit 43

Against Scepticism
G. E. Moore, A Defence of Common Sense 48
Vlll CONTENTS

1 1 Does Empirical Knowledge have a Foundation?

Wilfrid Sellars, The Myth of the Given
54
12 The Conditions for Knowledge
Edmund Gettier, Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?
60
Specimen Questions
63
Suggestions for Further Reading
64

Part II Being and Reality

67
1 The Allegory of the Cave
Plato, Republic
gg
2 Individual Substance
Aristotle, Categories
7g
3 Supreme Being and Created Things
Rene Descartes, Principles of Philosophy
80
4 Qualities and Ideas
John Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding 86
5 Substance, Life and Activity
Gottfried Leibniz, New System 9j
6 Nothing Outside the Mind
George Berkeley, Principles of Human Knowledge
97
7 The Limits of Metaphysical Speculation
David Hume, Enquiry concerning Human Understanding
102
8 Metaphysics, Old and New
Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena 108
9 Being and Involvement
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time
1 15

10 The End of Metaphysics?

Rudolf Carnap, The Elimination of Metaphysics
121
1 1 The Problem of Ontology
W. V. O. Quine, On What There Is 127
12 Why is There Anything?

Derek Parfit, The Puzzle of Reality

132
Specimen Questions
1 37
Suggestions for Further Reading
1 38

Part III Language and Meaning 141

1 The Meanings of Words
Plato, Cratylus
1 43
 CONTENTS IX

2 Language and its Acquisition

Augustine, Confessions 150

3 Thought, Language and its Components

William of Ockham, Writings on Logic 152

4 Language, Reason and Animal Utterance

Rene Descartes, Discourse on the Method 155

5 Abstract General Ideas

John Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding 157

6 Particular Ideasand General Meaning

George Berkeley, Principles of Human Knowledge 161

7 Denotation versus Connotation

John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic 165

8 Names and their Meaning

Gottlob Frege, Sense and Reference 170

9 Definite and Indefinite Descriptions

Bertrand Russell, Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy 174

10 Non-descriptive Uses of Language

J. L. Austin, Performative Utterances 180

11 Language, Meaning and Context

Paul Grice, Logic and Conversation 185

12 How the Reference of Terms is Fixed

Saul Kripke, Naming and Necessity 191

Specimen Questions 197

Suggestions for Further Reading 197

Part IV Mind and Body 201

1 The Immortal Soul
Plato, Phaedo 203

2 Soul and Body, Form and Matter

Aristotle, De Anima 210

3 The Human Soul

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 214

4 The Incorporeal Mind

Rene Descartes, Meditations 221

5 The Identity of Mind and Body

Benedict Spinoza, Ethics 227

6 Mind-Body Correlations
Nicolas Malebranche, Dialogues on Metaphysics 230
X CONTENTS

7 Body and Mind as Manifestations of Will

Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea 236

8 The Problem of Other Minds ^

John Stuart Mill, An Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy 240

9 The Hallmarks of Mental Phenomena

Franz Brentano, Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint 244

10 The Myth of the ‘Ghost in the Machine’

Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind 251

1 1 Mental States as Functional States

Hilary Putnam, Psychological Predicates 256

12 The Subjective Dimension of Consciousness

Thomas Nagel, What is it Like to be a Bat? 263

Specimen Questions 268

Suggestions for Further Reading 269

Part V The Self and Freedom 273

(a) The Self 275

1 The Self and Consciousness

John Locke, Essay concerning Human Understanding 275

2 The Self as Primitive Concept

Joseph Butler, Of Personal Identity 280

3 The Self as Bundle

David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature 285
10
4 The Partly Hidden Self
Sigmund Freud, Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis 290

5 Liberation from the Self

Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons 296

Selfhood and Narrative Understanding

Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self 302

(b) Freedom 307

7 Human Freedom and Divine Providence

Augustine, The City of God 307

8 Freedom to Do What We Want

Thomas Hobbes, Liberty, Necessity and Chance 312

9 Absolute Determinism
Pierre Simon de Laplace, Philosophical Essay on Probability 318

Condemned to be Free
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness 320
 CONTENTS XI

11 Determinism and our Attitudes to Others

Peter Strawson, Freedom and Resentment 326

12 Freedom, Responsibility and the Ability to do Otherwise

Harry G. Frankfurt, Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility 332

Specimen Questions 339

Suggestions for Further Reading 340

Part VI God and Religion 343

\J 1 The Existence of God

Anselm of Canterbury, Proslogion 345

2 The Five Proofs of God

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 348

3 God and the Idea of Perfection

Rene Descartes, Meditations 351

v/ 4 The Wager
Blaise Pascal, Pensees 356

5 The Problem of Evil

Gottfried Leibniz, Theodicy 359

6 The Argument from Design

David Hume, Dialogues concerning Natural Religion 365

7 Against Miracles
David Hume, Enquiry concerning Human Understanding 370

8 Faith and Subjectivity

Soren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript 376

9 Reason, Passion and the Religious Hypothesis

William James, The Will to Believe 382

10 The Meaning of Religious Language

John Wisdom, Gods 387

11 God’s Commands as the Foundation for Morality

Robert M. Adams, Moral Arguments for Theistic Belief 394

12 Against Evidentialism
Alvin Plantinga, Is Belief in God Properly Basic ? 399

Specimen Questions 406

Suggestions for Further Reading 407

Part VII Science and Method 411

1 Four Types of Explanation

Aristotle, Physics 413
xii CONTENTS

2 Experimental Methods and True Causes

Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
415
3 Mathematical Science and the Control of Nature
Rene Descartes, Discourse on the Method
422
4 The Limits of Scientific Explanation
George Berkeley, On Motion 427
5 The Problem of Induction
David Hume, Enquiry concerning Human Understanding 433
6 The Relation between Cause and Effect
David Hume, Enquiry concerning Human Understanding 438
7 Causality and our Experience of Events
Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason 443
8 The Uniformity of Nature
John Stuart Mill, System of Logic
447
9 Science and Falsifiability
Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations 453
10 How Explaining Works
Carl G. Hempel, Explanation in Science and History
460
1 1 Realism versus Instrumentalism
Scientific

Grover Maxwell, The Ontological Status of Theoretical Entities 469

12 Change and Crisis in Science
Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 475
Specimen Questions
481
Suggestions for Further Reading
432

Part VIII Morality and the Good Life 485

1 Morality and Happiness
Plato, Republic
437
2 Ethical Virtue
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 492
3 Virtue, Reason and the Passions
Benedict Spinoza, Ethics
495
4 Human Feeling as the Source of Ethics
David Hume, Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals 500
5 Duty and Reason as the Ultimate Principle
Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 506
6 Happiness as the Foundation of Morality
John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism
512
 1

CONTENTS Xiii

7 Utilityand Common-sense Morality

Henry Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics 517
8 Against Conventional Morality
Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil 524
9 Duty and Intuition
W. D. Ross, The Right and the Good 529
10 Rational Choice and Fairness
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 534
1 1 Ethics as Rooted in History and Culture
Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue 540
12 Could Ethics be Objective?
Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy 546
Specimen Questions 55

Suggestions for Further Reading 552

Part IX Problems in Ethics 555

1 Inequality, Freedom and Slavery
Aristotle, Politics 557
2 War and Justice
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 561

3 Taking One’s Own Life

David Hume, On Suicide 563
4 Gender, Liberty and Equality
Mary Wollstonecraff, A Vindication of the Rights of Women 569
5 Partiality and Favouritism
William Godwin, Enquiry concerning Political Justice 574
6 The Status of Non-human Animals
Immanuel Kant, Lectures on Ethics 576
7 The Purpose of Punishment
Jeremy Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation 579

8 Our Relationship to the Environment

Aldo Leopold, The Land Ethic 585

9 Abortion and Rights

Judith Jarvis Thomson, A Defense of Abortion 590

10 The Relief of Global Suffering

Peter Singer, Famine, Affluence and Morality 596

1 1 Medical Ethics and the Termination of Life

James Rachels, Active and Passive Euthanasia 602
XIV CONTENTS

12 Cloning, Sexual Reproduction and Genetic Engineering

Leon R. Kass, The Wisdom of Repugnance 608

Specimen Questions 616

Suggestions for Further Reading 617

Part X Authority and the State 621

1 Our Obligation to Respect the Laws of the State
Plato, Crito 623

2 The Just Ruler

Thomas Aquinas, On Princely Government 627

3 Sovereignty and Security

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 631

4 Consent and Political Obligation

John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government 636

5 Against Contractarianism
David Hume, Of the Original Contract 642

6 Society and the Individual

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract 647

7 The Unified State - From Individual Desire to Rational

Self-determination
Georg Hegel, The Philosophy of Right 653

8 Property, Labour and Alienation

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology 659

9 The Limits of Majority Rule

John Stuart Mill, On Liberty 665

10 The Minimal State

Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia 671

1 1 Social Co-operation and Rational Self-interest

David Gauthier, Why Contractarianism? 677

12 Liberalism, Resources and Equal Worth

Ronald Dworkin, Why Liberals Should Care about Equality 683

Specimen Questions 690

Suggestions for Further Reading 691

Part XI Beauty and Art 693

1 Art and Imitation
Plato, Republic 695
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ductibus Cresium Mithridatis

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reliquias
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